Opinion
No. 08-15-00028-CR
02-23-2018
MICHAEL DANIEL CUCUTA, Appellant, v. THE STATE OF TEXAS, Appellee.
Appeal from the 213th District Court of Tarrant County, Texas (TC# 1371063R) OPINION
During a robbery that occurred in the early morning hours of October 9, 2011, in an apartment shared by Eduardo Bustos and Savana Rodriguez, Bustos was shot and killed, and Rodriguez was shot and injured. In two separate indictments, Appellant was accused of committing two counts of aggravated robbery with respect to both Bustos and Rodriguez, one count of murder in the shooting death of Bustos, and one count each of attempted capital murder and aggravated assault in the shooting of Rodriguez. The attempted capital murder charge was based on the allegation that Appellant intentionally shot both Rodriguez and Bustos in the same criminal transaction.
This case was transferred from the Fort Worth Court of Appeals, and we apply the precedent of that court to the extent required by TEX.R.APP.P. 41.3.
A jury found Appellant guilty of all five counts, and further found that Appellant had used a deadly weapon in the commission of the offenses as charged in the indictments. The trial court sentenced Appellant to multiple concurrent prison sentences, the maximum of which was 45 years for the murder offense.
In this appeal, we consider only the convictions in the Rodriguez matter, and we issue a separate opinion in the Bustos matter in 08-15-00027-CR. Here, Appellant argues that the trial court erred by instructing the jury on the law of conspiracy; that the multiple punishments he received for convictions for aggravated assault, attempted capital murder, and aggravated robbery violated the Double Jeopardy Clause; that the trial court erred by allowing witnesses to testify to an extraneous drug dealing offense, and that Texas's "Law of Parties" statute is unconstitutional. We set aside Appellant's conviction for the aggravated assault of Rodriguez on double jeopardy grounds. We affirm his conviction for the attempted capital murder and aggravated robbery of Rodriguez.
Although Appellant's convictions arose from two separate indictments, he was tried and convicted in a single jury trial, and he filed a single brief covering his appeals from both convictions.
FACTUAL SUMMARY
Although Appellant pled not guilty to all of the charges against him, he admitted at trial to many of the facts underlying the State's case against him, and expressly acknowledged that he was guilty of committing the robbery. He claimed that he was innocent of the murder and attempted capital murder charges.
The undisputed testimony at trial revealed that Appellant had been friends with both Bustos and Rodriguez. However, Appellant had a falling out with Bustos approximately two months before the murder, and the two had not seen each other until the morning of the crime. Appellant claimed that the falling out occurred when he learned that Bustos had burglarized his residence while Appellant was in jail for violating his probation on a misdemeanor conviction for possession of marijuana.
Jose Acosta, who participated in the charged offenses along with Appellant, was a mutual friend of both Appellant and Bustos, and had been released from prison just days before the robbery. He also had a falling out with Bustos when he learned that Bustos had engaged in sexual relations with the mother of his child while Acosta was in prison, and that Bustos may have provided information to police that led to his imprisonment. Although Appellant claims he was unaware of Acosta's grudge against Bustos, the two of them admittedly devised a plan to burglarize an apartment where Bustos and Rodriguez were residing. According to Appellant, Acosta originally came up with the idea to commit the robbery because he needed money. Appellant agreed to the plan, in part because he believed that he might be able to regain possession of some of the items Bustos stole from him, and in part because he was admittedly addicted to methamphetamines at the time. The State introduced evidence that Appellant and Acosta had exchanged text messages prior to the crime, which indicated both individuals needed money.
Appellant testified that he and Acosta planned to commit the burglary when Bustos and Rodriguez were not at home. He admittedly obtained a gun, claiming that he and Acosta agreed they would only use the gun to scare off anyone who might witness the burglary.
It is undisputed that Appellant and Acosta drove to the apartment in the early morning hours of October 9, 2011, and that Acosta first went inside the apartment, leaving Appellant behind in the car. While inside, Acosta socialized with Bustos, Rodriguez, and another mutual friend, Jesus Hernandez, for at least an hour. After Hernandez left, Acosta contacted Appellant by cell phone, and directed him to come into the apartment. Appellant, who was high on methamphetamines, knew there were people inside the apartment when he entered.
Once inside, Appellant observed Bustos and Rodriguez sitting together on a couch in the living room. Shortly thereafter, Acosta confronted Bustos about being a "snitch," and also about whether he had previously engaged in sexual intercourse with Acosta's "baby momma." When Bustos admitted to a sexual relationship, Acosta pulled out the gun and directed Appellant to hit Bustos on the head with a liquor bottle that was on a nearby table. Appellant refused to do so. However, fearing that Acosta might turn the gun on him for failing to follow his directions, Appellant went into the victims' bedroom, and began looking through their things.
Rodriguez testified that while Appellant was in the bedroom, Acosta was pointing his gun at Bustos, and she therefore tried to protect herself by moving away from Bustos. When she did so, Acosta grabbed her by the hair and pointed the gun at her, saying, "Bitch, don't fucking move." Bustos then tackled Acosta, and while the two were wrestling, Rodriguez heard at least four gunshots ring out, and saw blood on Bustos. As Rodriguez tried to run to the door, Acosta shot her in the hip. Rodriguez acknowledged that Appellant did not fire any shots or have a gun with him, and never touched her or Bustos. Nevertheless, she testified that Appellant did not appear to be surprised when Acosta pulled out the gun and threatened to shoot Bustos, and did nothing to stop Acosta from shooting them.
Appellant testified that while he was in the bedroom, he heard gunshots coming from the living room. When he returned to the living room, he saw that both Bustos and Rodriguez had been shot, and that Acosta was pistol-whipping Bustos on his forehead as he lay on the floor. Appellant claimed that he grabbed Acosta and stopped him from continuing to assault Bustos. Appellant also recalled that as they were exiting the apartment, Acosta tried to shoot Rodriguez again, but the gun jammed, and the two of them then ran out the door.
Bustos suffered three gunshot wounds and died shortly after the shooting. The medical examiner testified that Bustos died from a fatal wound to his chest, which was fired while the gun was in contact with his skin. Rodriguez, who had been shot in the right hip, spent several days in the hospital, but was able to attend Bustos's funeral, albeit in a wheelchair.
Following a joint trial on the charges against him in both the Bustos and Rodriguez indictments, a jury found Appellant guilty of one count of murder with regard to Bustos's death, one count each of the attempted capital murder and aggravated assault with regard to Rodriguez's injuries, and two counts of aggravated robbery, one naming Bustos as the victim and the other naming Rodriguez. In addition, the jury found that Appellant had used a firearm during the course of his crimes, and answered "yes" to a deadly weapon special issue. The trial court sentenced Appellant to the following prison terms: 45 years for Bustos's murder; 35 years for the aggravated robbery of Bustos; 35 years for the attempted capital murder of Rodriguez; 20 years for the aggravated assault of Rodriguez; and 35 years for the aggravated robbery of Rodriguez, all sentences to run concurrently. This appeal follows.
THE INSTRUCTIONS ON "CONSPIRACY"
In Issue One, Appellant argues that the trial court erred by giving the following instructions in the jury charge:
"Conspiracy" means an agreement with one or more person that they or one or more of them engage in conduct that would constitute a felony. An agreement constituting a conspiracy may be inferred from the acts of the parties.
. . .
A person is criminally responsible for an offense committed by the conduct of another if, in the attempt to carry out a conspiracy to commit one felony, another felony is committed by one of the conspirators, all conspirators are guilty of the felony actually committed, though having no intent to commit it, if the offense was committed in furtherance of the unlawful purpose and was one that should have been anticipated as a result of the carrying out of the conspiracy.
Appellant did not object to the charge at trial, and contends for the first time on appeal that the instructions may have confused the jurors and caused them to convict him for all of the offenses as a co-conspirator. He emphasizes that criminal conspiracy is a separate substantive offense under section 15.02 of the Texas Penal Code, and that he was not charged with criminal conspiracy in either of his indictments. He urges that we reverse all of his convictions on this basis, so that he might receive a fair trial with a jury charge that is limited to the charges set forth in his indictment.
Standard of Review
The first step in analyzing a claim of jury charge error is to determine whether the submitted charge was erroneous. Arteaga v. State, 521 S.W.3d 329, 333 (Tex.Crim.App. 2017) (citing Barrios v. State, 283 S.W.3d 348, 350 (Tex.Crim.App. 2009)). If so, we must then determine whether the defendant was harmed by that error. Id. (citing Barrios, 283 S.W.3d at 350). When a defendant did not object to the charge, he can prevail only if he can demonstrate that he was egregiously harmed. Id. at 338 (citing Almanza v. State, 686 S.W.2d 157, 171 (Tex.Crim.App. 1984) (op. on reh'g)). Charge error is egregiously harmful if it affects the very basis of a case, deprives the defendant of a valuable right, or vitally affects a defensive theory. Id. (citing Sanchez v. State, 209 S.W.3d 117, 121 (Tex.Crim.App. 2006)). In examining the record for egregious harm, we must consider the entire jury charge, the state of the evidence, the closing arguments of the parties, and any other relevant information in the record. Id. (citing Olivas v. State, 202 S.W.3d 137, 144 (Tex.Crim.App. 2006)).
Analysis
Appellant correctly states that fundamental error occurs when a trial court instructs the jury on an unindicted offense and when the defendant is subsequently convicted of the unindicted offense. See Woodard v. State, 322 S.W.3d 648, 657-58 (Tex.Crim.App. 2010). Appellant then argues that the instruction effectively told the jury that it could convict him of criminal conspiracy, even though he had not been indicted for that offense. We disagree.
The trial court gave the instruction when discussing the doctrine of the law of parties, which is found in sections 7.01 and 7.02 of the Texas Penal Code. Section 7.01 provides that a person is "criminally responsible as a party to an offense if the offense is committed by his own conduct, by the conduct of another for which he is criminally responsible, or by both." TEX.PENAL CODE ANN. § 7.01(a) (West 2011). In turn, section 7.02 of the Code provides that a person may be held "criminally responsible for an offense committed by the conduct of another" under a variety of circumstances, including when the person acts with "intent to promote or assist the commission of the offense [and] solicits, encourages, directs, aids, or attempts to aid the other person to commit the offense . . . ." TEX.PENAL CODE ANN. § 7.02(a)(2) (West 2011). Section 7.02 of the Code also expressly provides that a person may be held criminally responsible for the acts of another under a conspiracy theory, providing that: "If, in the attempt to carry out a conspiracy to commit one felony, another felony is committed by one of the conspirators, all conspirators are guilty of the felony actually committed, though having no intent to commit it, if the offense was committed in furtherance of the unlawful purpose and was one that should have been anticipated as a result of the carrying out of the conspiracy." TEX.PENAL CODE ANN. § 7.02(b). As explained by the Fort Worth Court of Appeals, under the law of parties, the State is able to enlarge a defendant's criminal responsibility to include acts in which he or she may not have been the principal actor. Bleil v. State, 496 S.W.3d 194, 202 (Tex.App.--Fort Worth 2016, pet. ref'd) (citing Ryser v. State, 453 S.W.3d 17, 28 (Tex.App.--Houston [1st Dist.] 2014, pet. ref'd)); see also Goff v. State, 931 S.W.2d 537, 544 (Tex.Crim.App. 1996).
The court instructed the jury on this aspect of the law of parties as follows: "A person is criminally responsible for an offense committed by the conduct of another if, acting with intent to promote or assist the commission of the offense, he solicits, encourages, directs, aids, or attempts to aid the other person to commit the offense. Mere presence alone will not constitute one a party to an offense."
The doctrine may be applied to a defendant's case even though no such allegation is contained in the indictment. See Murkledove v. State, 437 S.W.3d 17, 21-22 (Tex.App.--Fort Worth 2014, pet. dism'd, untimely filed) (citing Montoya v. State, 810 S.W.2d 160, 165 (Tex.Crim.App. 1989)). Moreover, the Court of Criminal Appeals has expressly held that when instructing the jury on the law of parties, the trial court may properly include a definition of the term, "conspiracy," and approved a jury charge that contained almost identical language to the one that was given here. See Ladd v. State, 3 S.W.3d 547, 565 (Tex.Crim.App. 1999); see also Gilmore v. State, 397 S.W.3d 226 (Tex.App.--Fort Worth 2012, pet. ref'd) (finding that the trial court did not err in including a definition of "conspiracy" in the jury charge while instructing the jury on the law of parties). In reaching this conclusion, the court held that although the trial court was not required to define the term "conspiracy" as it was not defined in the Penal Code, it "certainly did not err in instructing the jury to give the term its commonly understood meaning." Ladd, 3 S.W.3d at 565.
In Ladd, the trial court instructed the jury as follows: "You are . . . instructed that, if, in the attempt to carry out a conspiracy to commit one felony, another felony is committed by one of the conspirators, then all conspirators are guilty of the felony actually committed, though having no intent to commit it, if the offense was committed in furtherance of the unlawful purpose and was one that should have been anticipated as a result of the carrying out of the conspiracy. Capital murder, murder, robbery, burglary of a building, aggravated sexual assault, and arson are felonies. By the term "conspiracy" as used in these instructions, is meant an agreement between two or more persons, with intent that a felony be committed, that they, or one or more of them, engage in conduct that would constitute the offense. An agreement constituting a conspiracy may be inferred from acts of the parties." Ladd, 3 S.W.3d at 565.
In Montoya, the Court of Criminal Appeals, rejected a substantially similar argument to the one Appellant raises in this case. There, the trial court gave a virtually identical instruction on the "theory of conspiracy" in a jury charge explaining the law of parties. Montoya, 810 S.W.2d at 164-65. The defendant argued that it was error to do so, as the instruction might have confused the jurors and caused them to mistakenly convict him of the separate offense of criminal conspiracy. The court held that the jury charge, which properly defined the term, was not misleading as it did not instruct the jury that it could find the defendant guilty of a separate conspiracy offense, and instead, merely explained to the jury the circumstances under which a defendant could be held liable under an alternative "parties" charge as provided in section 7.02(b) of the Penal Code. Id. at 165; see also Murkledove, 437 S.W.3d at 23 (rejecting appellant's argument that a similar jury charge defining the term "conspiracy" in explaining the law of parties would have allowed the jury to convict him of capital murder if it found him guilty of conspiracy); see also Ladd, 3 S.W.3d at 565 (trial court properly provided the jury with a definition of the term "conspiracy" in explaining the concept of the law of parties); Gilmore, 397 S.W.3d at 245 (recognizing that a trial court may instruct the jury on both the law of parties and the law of conspiracy in a jury charge in accordance with section 7.02 of the Penal Code). We conclude that the trial court properly provided the jury with an instruction on the definition of conspiracy in explaining the law of parties doctrine to the jury. We overrule Issue One.
In Montoya, the Court gave the following instructions in its charge to the jury: "If, in the attempt to carry out a conspiracy to commit one felony, another felony is committed by one of the conspirators, then all conspirators are guilty of the felony actually committed, though having no intent to commit it, if the offense was committed in furtherance of the unlawful purpose and was one that should have been anticipated as a result of the carrying out the conspiracy. Capital Murder, murder, robbery, and attempted robbery are felonies. By the term 'conspiracy' as used in these instructions, is meant an agreement between two or more persons, with intent that a felony be committed, that they, or one or more of them, engage in conduct that would constitute the offense. An agreement constituting a conspiracy may be inferred from acts of the parties." 810 S.W.2d at 164.
FEDERAL AND STATE DOUBLE JEOPARDY RIGHTS
In his second and third issues on appeal, Appellant contends that his federal and state double jeopardy rights were violated when he was convicted and punished for all five offenses. With regard to the Rodriguez indictment, he makes two distinct arguments that we review separately. First, he argues that double jeopardy prohibited multiple punishments for both the aggravated assault and the attempted capital murder of Rodriguez. Second, he argues that double jeopardy prohibited multiple punishments for the aggravated robbery of Rodriguez, and either the aggravated assault and/or the attempted capital murder of Rodriguez.
Standard of Review and Applicable Law
The Double Jeopardy Clause of the United States Constitution is applicable to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment, and it protects an accused from impermissible multiple punishments in the same proceeding, or successive prosecutions for the same offense after an acquittal or conviction. Ex parte Castillo, 469 S.W.3d 165, 168-69 (Tex.Crim.App. 2015) (U.S. CONST. AMEND. V, cl. 2); Ex parte Amador, 326 S.W.3d 202, 205 (Tex.Crim.App. 2010); see also Littrell v. State, 271 S.W.3d 273, 275 (Tex.Crim.App. 2008) (recognizing that a defendant may not be convicted of the same offense twice either in the same or subsequent proceedings).
When two distinct statutory provisions are at issue, we ordinarily determine legal sameness by applying the Blockburger test. Ex parte Castillo, 469 S.W.3d at 168 (citing United States v. Dixon, 509 U.S. 688, 697, 113 S.Ct. 2849, 125 L.Ed.2d 556 (1993); Blockburger v. United States, 284 U.S. 299, 304, 52 S.Ct. 180, 76 L.Ed. 306 (1932)). Under the Blockburger test, "where the same act or transaction constitutes a violation of two distinct statutory provisions, the test to be applied to determine whether there are two offenses or only one is whether each provision requires proof of an additional fact which the other does not." See Ex parte Denton, 399 S.W.3d 540, 545-46 (Tex.Crim.App. 2013) (quoting Blockburger, 284 U.S. at 304, 52 S.Ct. at 182). As the Court of Criminal Appeals has recognized, however, the Blockburger test is merely the starting point in the analysis of a multiple-punishments double jeopardy claim. Id. at 546 (citing Bigon v. State, 252 S.W.3d 360, 370 (Tex.Crim.App. 2008)). In Texas, the application of the Blockburger same elements test is governed by the cognate pleadings approach, which entails comparing the elements of the greater offense as pled in the indictment, to the statutory elements of the lesser offense. Ex parte Benson, 459 S.W.3d 67, 72 (Tex.Crim.App. 2015) (citing Ex parte Amador, 326 S.W.3d 202, 206 n.5 (Tex.Crim.App. 2010)). If the two offenses so compared have the same elements, then "a judicial presumption arises that the offenses are the same for purposes of double jeopardy" and that the defendant may not be punished for both. But that presumption can be rebutted by a clearly expressed legislative intent to impose multiple punishments. Id. Conversely, if the two offenses have different elements under the Blockburger test, the judicial presumption is that the offenses are different for double jeopardy purposes and cumulative punishment may be imposed. Id. This presumption can be rebutted by showing, through various factors, that the Legislature "clearly intended only one" punishment. Id. This analysis is a legal question and does not depend on the evidence offered at trial. Ex parte Castillo, 469 S.W.3d at 169 (citing Hall v. State, 225 S.W.3d 524, 535 (Tex.Crim.App. 2007)).
If a court determines that the offenses are legally the same, the next step is to determine whether the offenses are factually the same. Id. (citing Ex parte Benson, 459 S.W.3d at 72)). "We determine factual sameness by determining the allowable unit of prosecution and reviewing the trial record to establish how many units have been shown." Id. "The allowable unit of prosecution of an offense turns on statutory construction and usually requires ascertaining the gravamen, or gravamina, of the offense." Id. If a court concludes that the offenses are based on the same allowable unit of prosecution, then the offenses are factually the same for double jeopardy purposes. Id. To prevail on a double jeopardy claim, the claimant must prove both "legal sameness and factual sameness." Id.
A double jeopardy claim may be raised for the first time on appeal "when the undisputed facts show the double jeopardy violation is clearly apparent on the face of the record and when enforcement of usual rules of procedural default serves no legitimate state interests." Gonzalez v. State, 8 S.W.3d 640, 643 (Tex.Crim.App. 2000).
Appellant Could Not be Punished for Both the Aggravated Assault of Rodriguez
and the Attempted Capital Murder of Rodriguez
Count One in the Rodriguez indictment alleged that Appellant committed the attempted capital murder of Savana Rodriguez by intentionally shooting both Bustos and Rodriguez with a deadly weapon, "to wit: a firearm[.]" Count Three in the same indictment alleged that Appellant committed aggravated assault by intentionally or knowingly causing bodily injury to Rodriguez by "shooting her with a firearm[.]" Appellant contends that double jeopardy prohibited him from being convicted and punished for both offenses, and the State concedes error on this point. We agree.
An aggravated assault may be committed in a variety of ways. Under section 22.01 of the Penal Code, a person commits an assault if the person: "(1) intentionally, knowingly, or recklessly causes bodily injury to another, including the person's spouse; (2) intentionally or knowingly threatens another with imminent bodily injury, including the person's spouse; or (3) intentionally or knowingly causes physical contact with another when the person knows or should reasonably believe that the other will regard the contact as offensive or provocative." TEX. PENAL CODE ANN. § 22.01 (West Supp. 2017). In turn, a person commits an aggravated assault if he commits assault as defined under section 22.01, and if he "(a) A person commits an offense if the person commits assault as defined in § 22.01 and the person: (1) causes serious bodily injury to another, including the person's spouse; or (2) uses or exhibits a deadly weapon during the commission of the assault." TEX. PENAL CODE ANN. § 22.02 (West 2011). Appellant was charged in the Rodriguez indictment with committing an aggravated assault by intentionally or knowingly causing bodily injury, by using or exhibiting a deadly weapon, to-wit, a firearm, rather than by means of a threat.
Capital murder can also be committed in a variety of ways, but here, Appellant was charged with committing attempted capital murder pursuant to section 19.03(a)(7)(A), which provides that a person commits capital murder when: "(7) the person murders more than one person: (A) during the same criminal transaction . . . ." TEX. PENAL CODE ANN. § 19.03 (West Supp. 2017). In the indictment for attempted capital murder, the State alleged that Appellant had committed aggravated assault by intentionally or knowingly causing bodily injury to Rodriguez by shooting her with a firearm and that he used or exhibited a deadly weapon, to-wit: a firearm, during the commission of the assault. Similarly, the indictment alleged that Appellant had committed attempted capital murder, naming Rodriguez as the victim, by intentionally shooting Rodriguez and Bustos with a deadly weapon.
The statutory requirements for an attempt are as follows: "(1) a person; (2) with specific intent to commit an offense (the required culpability); (3) does an act amounting to more than mere preparation (the forbidden conduct); (4) that tends but fails to effect the commission of the offense intended (the required result)." Guillory v. State, 639 S.W.2d 1, 2 (Tex.App.--Houston [1st Dist.] 1982, pet. ref'd) (citing Torres v. State, 618 S.W.2d 549, 550 (Tex.Crim.App.1981)).
The indictment relied on the exact same set of facts to prove both the aggravated assault and the attempted capital murder, i.e., the shooting of Rodriguez. Therefore, the State could not have proven the greater offense, i.e., the attempted capital murder of Rodriguez by virtue of the shooting, without also proving the offense of aggravated assault of Rodriguez, by virtue of the same shooting. While the attempted capital murder required the State to prove one additional element, i.e., that Appellant shot Rodriguez in the same criminal transaction as he shot Bustos, the lesser offense of aggravated assault did not require the State to prove any other factual elements.
The key for determining whether there are two offenses or only one under the Blockburger test is whether "each provision requires proof of an additional fact which the other does not." See Ex parte Denton, 399 S.W.3d 540, 545-46 (Tex.Crim.App. 2013) (quoting Blockburger, 284 U.S. at 304, 52 S.Ct. at 182). We conclude that under the Blockburger test, the two offenses are legally the same for double jeopardy purposes. See, e.g., Meine v. State, 356 S.W.3d 605, 610 (Tex.App.--Corpus Christi 2011, pet. ref'd) (concluding that aggravated assault charge was a lesser-included offense of attempted capital murder charge where the State alleged the same means of committing the offense, i.e., the shooting of a firearm at the same victim); see also Ex parte Castillo, 469 S.W.3d at 170-72 (aggravated assault of victim was a lesser included offense of capital murder of the same victim for double jeopardy purposes); Dowden v. State, 758 S.W.2d 264, 269 (Tex.Crim.App.1988) (recognizing that aggravated assault can be a lesser included offense of capital murder); Williams v. State, 622 S.W.2d 578, 579 (Tex.Crim.App.1981) (recognizing that aggravated assault is a lesser included offense of attempted murder); Hanson v. State, No. 2-04-295-CR, 2006 WL 59333, at *2 (Tex.App.--Fort Worth, 2006, no pet.) (not designated for publication) (State conceded that aggravated assault was a lesser included offense of attempted capital murder).
We also conclude that the two offenses were factually the same. As the Court of Criminal Appeals has recognized, the allowable unit of prosecution for attempted capital murder when the aggravating circumstance is the killing (or attempted killing) of multiple individuals in the same scheme or course of conduct. See Ex parte Milner, 394 S.W.3d 502, 510 (Tex.Crim.App. 2013). The unit of prosecution is focused on the victim or victims. Id.; see also Ex parte Castillo, 469 S.W.3d at 172 (recognizing that the allowable unit of prosecution in a capital murder case, where the aggravating circumstance is the killing of multiple individuals, the unit of prosecution is focused on the victim). Similarly, the allowable unit of prosecution in an aggravated assault case is the victim as well. Id. at 171-72. As the State named Rodriguez as the same victim in both counts, we conclude that the two offenses were factually the same for double jeopardy purposes. See generally Bigon, 252 S.W.3d at 370 (citing Langs, 183 S.W.3d at 685) (recognizing that a defendant may not be punished twice for the same criminal act involving the same victim under two distinct statutes, where the Legislature intended that the conduct be punished only once); cf. Ex parte Castillo, 469 S.W.3d at 172 (concluding that an alleged aggravated assault charge against one victim, and a capital murder charge based on the commission of a burglary in the course of a different victim's murder, were not factually the same, where the two charges named different victims, and therefore alleged two different units of prosecution).
The Remedy
The remedy for situations in which a defendant is convicted of two offenses that are the same for double jeopardy purposes is to retain the most serious offense, and to set aside the less serious one. See, e.g., Ex parte Cavazos, 203 S.W.3d 333, 337 (Tex.Crim.App. 2006). The most serious offense is generally the offense of conviction for which the greatest sentence was assessed. Id. at 338; see also Ex parte Denton, 399 S.W.3d at 547 (court retained the defendant's convictions for aggravated robbery and set aside his aggravated assault convictions where defendant received lesser sentences for the aggravated assault convictions).
Appellant was sentenced to thirty-five years for the attempted capital murder conviction and twenty years for his conviction for aggravated assault with a deadly weapon. Because the attempted capital murder conviction was the more serious crime, we retain that conviction, and set aside Appellant's conviction for aggravated assault.
Appellant Could be Convicted of Both the Aggravated Robbery of Rodriguez and the
Attempted Capital Murder of Rodriguez
Appellant contends that his conviction for aggravated robbery must also be vacated on double jeopardy grounds, arguing that the factual elements necessary to convict him for the two offenses were the same. We disagree.
To be convicted of aggravated robbery, the State must first prove that a defendant engaged in a violation of section 29.02 of the Texas Penal Code, which provides that a person commits robbery "if, in the course of committing theft as defined in Chapter 31 and with intent to obtain or maintain control of the property, he: (1) intentionally, knowingly, or recklessly causes bodily injury to another; or (2) intentionally or knowingly threatens or places another in fear of imminent bodily injury or death." TEX.PENAL CODE ANN. § 29.02 (West 2011). Then the State must prove one of the aggravating factors, which includes proving that the defendant caused "serious bodily injury to another," or that the defendant "use[d] or exhibit[ed] a deadly weapon" during the course of committing the offense. TEX.PENAL CODE ANN. § 29.03(a)(1)(2) (West 2011). The State chose to charge Appellant with aggravated robbery by intentionally or knowingly, while in the course of committing theft of property, threatening or placing Rodriguez in fear of imminent bodily injury or death, and used a deadly weapon, to-wit, a firearm. The means of committing the robbery was via threat rather than infliction of bodily injury. In contrast, the attempted capital murder charge was based on the allegation that Appellant shot Rodriguez with a deadly weapon, an offense that was assaultive in nature. See generally Ex parte Castillo, 469 S.W.3d at 172 (recognizing the assaultive nature of attempted capital murder). Thus, the indictment alleged two dissimilar means of committing the two offenses.
In applying the Blockburger test to these two offenses, we note that as pled in the indictment, each offense required an element that the other did not. The aggravated robbery offense required the State to prove a threat, while the attempted capital murder offense did not. In addition, the attempted capital murder offense required the State to prove that Appellant shot at Rodriguez with the intent to commit murder, while the aggravated robbery charge did not. Under the facts as pled in the indictment, each offense required proof of an element that the other did not, and we conclude that that the two offenses were not the same for double jeopardy purposes.
We contrast this with situations in which the State has charged the defendant with committing an aggravated robbery and aggravated assault (or any other assaultive offense), pleading the same means of committing the two offenses. In such cases, where the State has pled the same means of committing the two offenses, the two offenses may be the same for double jeopardy purposes. Thus, in Ex parte Denton, 399 S.W.3d 540 (Tex.Crim.App. 2013), the court held that where the State alleged that the defendant had committed aggravated robbery based on threatening his victims, and similarly alleged that he had committed aggravated assault of the same victim during the same criminal transaction by also threatening the same victims, the two offenses, as pled in the indictment, were the same for double jeopardy purposes. Id. at 547. In particular, the court noted that in this instance, the aggravated assault by threat offense, as pled in the indictment, was a lesser-included offense of the greater offense of aggravated robbery by threat, because it was "established by proof of the same or less than all the facts" required to establish the commission of the aggravated robbery. Id. In reaching this conclusion, the court found it significant that neither count alleged bodily injury, and both relied on the same set of facts, the threat with a deadly weapon, to establish guilt. Id.
Where, as here, the State charges the defendant with an aggravated robbery and an additional assaultive offense committed by different means, the outcome is different. Thus, in Garfias v. State, 424 S.W.3d 54, 64 (Tex.Crim.App. 2014) the court held that a defendant's double jeopardy rights are not violated when the defendant is convicted of both aggravated robbery by threat, and aggravated assault with a deadly weapon, even when the two offenses arose of the same transaction and involved the same victim. The court noted that the focus of the two offenses differed, in that the assault offense was committed by virtue of a threat, while the aggravated assault offense was committed by causing bodily injury. Id. at 57, 59. It further concluded that because the two offenses are found in different sections of the Penal Code, and because the gravamen of the two offenses differ, the Legislature intended for a defendant to be punished for both offenses, even if the same victim was involved in both offenses. Id. at 61. The court reached this conclusion by recognizing that although the gravamen of robbery or assault can be generally termed the defendant's assaultive conduct against each victim, the individual gravamina of assault or robbery by threat and assault or robbery causing bodily injury differ significantly, thereby allowing for multiple punishments for both crimes. See Garfias, 424 S.W.3d at 60-61 (citing Landrian v. State, 268 S.W.3d 532, 540 (Tex.Crim.App. 2008); Denton, 399 S.W.3d at 546); see also Hall v. State, 225 S.W.3d 524, 536 (Tex.Crim.App. 2007) (aggravated assault was not a lesser-included offense of murder, despite the use of the same weapon in the commission of both offenses, where the defendant was charged with one count of aggravated assault, which alleged that defendant had threatened victim with a weapon by displaying the weapon, and one count of murder, by shooting the victim with the same weapon; the two counts did not rely on the same facts, and the charge of aggravated assault by threat required proof of additional facts not alleged in the murder charge); see generally Douglas v. State, 915 S.W.2d 166, 168 (Tex.App.--Corpus Christi 1996, no pet.) (noting that the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals has repeatedly held that bodily injury crimes and crimes involving threats are two distinct categories of crimes, requiring different proof).
We too conclude that by charging Appellant with committing the aggravated robbery and the attempted capital murder by different means -- one by committing a threat and the other by committing bodily injury -- the two offenses did not rely on the same set of facts, and the gravamen of the two offenses was therefore different, thereby allowing for multiple punishments for the two offenses. Garfias, 424 S.W.3d at 61. As such, we conclude that they were separate offenses for double jeopardy purposes. Id.
We sustain Issue Two in part and overrule in part. We set aside the aggravated assault conviction, but affirm the convictions for both the aggravated robbery and the attempted capital murder of Rodriguez.
EVIDENCE OF APPELLANT'S EXTRANEOUS DRUG DEALING
In Issue Four, Appellant argues that the trial court erred by allowing various State witnesses to testify regarding his extraneous drug dealing offense. At trial, defense counsel objected to the introduction of evidence suggesting that Appellant was a "drug dealer." Appellant objected both on relevance grounds under Rule 404(b) of the Texas Rules of Evidence, and on the ground that the probative value of the evidence was outweighed by its prejudicial effect. The State responded that the evidence was relevant to prove motive, based on the theory that Bustos was being targeted due to his reputation as a "snitch," making the fact that Appellant, Acosta and Bustos were in the "drug trade together" relevant to the case. Appellant's attorney argued that the evidence did not support this link, as the only evidence established that Acosta believed Bustos was a "snitch," but the subject of his snitching was not clear, and there was no evidence to suggest that he snitched about anything to do with the drug trade.
Appellant does not argue on appeal that the trial court should have excluded the evidence under Rule 403, which provides that a court may exclude relevant evidence if its probative value is substantially outweighed by a danger of one or more of the following: unfair prejudice, confusing the issues, misleading the jury, undue delay, or needlessly presenting cumulative evidence.
The trial court overruled the objection, but allowed Appellant a running objection to the introduction of such evidence. Appellant contends that the trial court abused its discretion in overruling his objection and admitting the evidence of his alleged drug dealing.
Applicable Law and Standard of Review
Rule 404(b) of the Texas Rules of Evidence provides that evidence of a defendant's extraneous offenses, i.e., other crimes, wrongs, or acts committed by the defendant, is generally not admissible unless it has some relevance apart from character conformity, such as to prove identity or intent, to establish motive, or to show opportunity or preparation. TEX.R.EVID. 404(b); Moses v. State, 105 S.W.3d 622, 626 (Tex.Crim.App. 2003). Evidence of other crimes is not admissible to prove the defendant is a criminal or to demonstrate his bad character. See Wintters v. State, 616 S.W.2d 197, 200 (Tex.Crim.App. 1981).
Relevant evidence is evidence having any tendency to make the existence of any fact that is of consequence to the determination of the action more probable or less probable than it would be without the evidence. Henley v. State, 493 S.W.3d 77, 83 (Tex.Crim.App. 2016) (citing TEX.R.EVID. 401) ("[e]vidence is relevant if: (a) it has any tendency to make a fact more or less probable than it would be without the evidence; and (b) the fact is of consequence in determining the action")). Only relevant evidence is admissible at trial, and the trial court's decision of whether to admit or deny evidence is reviewed under an abuse of discretion standard. Id.; see also Torres v. State, 71 S.W.3d 758, 760 (Tex.Crim.App. 2002). However, "[e]vidence need not by itself prove or disprove a particular fact to be relevant; it is sufficient if the evidence provides a small nudge toward proving or disproving some fact of consequence. Stewart v. State, 129 S.W.3d 93, 96 (Tex.Crim.App. 2004).
In general, a trial court's ruling admitting evidence will not be reversed on appeal absent a clear abuse of discretion. Jordy v. State, 413 S.W.3d 227, 231 (Tex.App.--Fort Worth 2013, no pet.) (citing Tillman v. State, 354 S.W.3d 425, 435 (Tex.Crim.App. 2011)). The trial court does not abuse its discretion by admitting evidence unless its determination lies outside the zone of reasonable disagreement. Id. (citing Lozano, 359 S.W.3d at 817). The trial court's ruling will be upheld if it is reasonably supported by the record and is correct under any theory of law applicable to the case. Id. (citing Ramos, 245 S.W.3d at 418; State v. Dixon, 206 S.W.3d 587, 590 (Tex.Crim.App. 2006)).
The Evidence of Appellant's Drug Dealings was Relevant
At trial, the State presented evidence that Bustos was a drug dealer who sold cocaine, marijuana, and methamphetamine. In particular, the State presented evidence that on a prior occasion in January of 2011, Bustos had been driving a vehicle in which Appellant and another individual were passengers, and had been stopped and arrested for possession of a controlled substance. Bustos was "no billed" for that offense.
The State also presented evidence that Bustos, Acosta, and Appellant had been involved in at least one drug deal together. In particular, their mutual friend, Jesus Hernandez, testified that while he was at Bustos's cousin's house, he observed the three men in one of the bedrooms with cocaine on a bed. Hernandez recalled that the cocaine was "bagged up" into about five bags, and that the men were discussing selling the drugs, and delivering it to different people at different locations. He further testified that he had personal knowledge that Bustos was a drug dealer, and that he also believed that Appellant and Acosta were as well. However, Hernandez acknowledged that this was the only occasion on which he had heard Appellant discuss selling drugs and that his opinion that Appellant was a drug dealer was based solely on "hearsay."
Evidence was also presented to establish that Acosta believed Bustos was a "snitch," and that he had been giving information to the police implicating Appellant and his friends in criminal activity in order to get out of jail. The State even presented the testimony of a detective, who expressed his opinion that drug dealers do not look favorably on "snitches," and that he has heard of snitches being "assaulted, threatened [and] intimidated," adding that he has heard of one that was killed.
Appellant contends that this evidence should not have been admitted because there "were no first hand witnesses to any drug dealing on the part of Appellant," and that even if there had been firsthand witnesses, there was no nexus between his alleged drug dealing and Bustos's murder. He further argues that the State's purported reason for admitting the evidence -- to demonstrate that Bustos's "snitching" was a motive for the murder -- was simply a pretext to allow in the evidence for the true purpose of demonstrating that he was a drug dealer, and therefore of bad character.
The State counters that the evidence was admissible for a variety of purposes. First, it was relevant to demonstrate the res gestae of the offense and explain the surrounding circumstances leading to the commission of the offense and the relationship of the parties. It has long been the rule in this State that the jury is entitled to know all the relevant surrounding facts and circumstances of the charged offense. An offense is not tried in a vacuum. See Moreno v. State, 721 S.W.2d 295, 301 (Tex.Crim.App. 1986). Extraneous offense evidence may be admissible as same-transaction contextual evidence, where "several crimes are intermixed, or blended with one another, or connected so that they form an indivisible criminal transaction." Prible v. State, 175 S.W.3d 724, 731 (Tex.Crim.App. 2005).
We agree with the State that the evidence of the drug transactions in which Appellant, Acosta, and Bustos were involved was relevant to explain the nature of their relationship and to demonstrate a possible motive for the robbery and murder. Although perhaps not directly linked, the evidence that the three had been involved in drug deals together could have explained why Acosta believed that Bustos was a "snitch." Appellant himself admitted at trial that he was a methamphetamine addict with an expensive $200 a day habit, that Bustos was his "drug dealer," and that he and Acosta were both high on methamphetamine at the time of the crime. This was sufficient to allow the jury to infer that Appellant and Bustos may have planned the murder in part to obtain money or drugs from Bustos. In turn, the evidence of their mutual drug transactions would support the fact that Appellant and Acosta would have known that Bustos either had drugs at his apartment, cash from drug sales, weapons or other valuables they could have taken in the robbery. This evidence not only explained the context within which the offense occurred, but supplied a possible motive for the robbery and murder. See Russell v. State, 155 S.W.3d 176, 183 (Tex.Crim.App. 2005) (evidence of defendant's extraneous drug offense was relevant to establish that defendant had a motive to murder his victim, who was acting as a confidential informant in cooperation with an undercover agent, which led to the defendant's arrest); see also Prewitt v. State, 133 S.W.3d 860, 865-66 (Tex.App.--Amarillo 2004, pet. ref'd) (recognizing that evidence pertaining to defendant's drug use and involvement in drug trading activities was relevant to demonstrate a possible motive in the victim's murder); Saxer v. State, 115 S.W.3d 765, 780 (Tex.App.--Beaumont 2003, pet. ref'd) (evidence of defendant's drug use was admissible to demonstrate his state of mind at the time of the victim's murder); Toliver v. State, 279 S.W.3d 391, 394-96 (Tex.App.--Texarkana 2009, pet. ref'd) (extraneous evidence of defendant's drug sales was relevant in murder case as evidence of defendant's possible motive to murder confidential informant); Worsham v. State, No. 2-02-464-CR, 2004 WL 1067772, at *4 (Tex.App.--Fort Worth May 13, 2004, pet. ref'd) (mem. op.) (not designated for publication) (evidence of extraneous drug dealing was relevant to State's theory that defendant's motive to kill his victim was the result of defendant's belief that the victim was not giving him a "fair cut" in their dealings).
Rodriguez, the only other witness who testified to the events, recalled that she heard Appellant and Acosta say that they were looking for an AK-47 they believed Bustos had, but which she claimed was no longer in the apartment.
Appellant was not Harmed by the Admission of the Evidence
Even if we were to find that the evidence was improperly admitted, we would nevertheless conclude that error was harmless and does not require reversal of Appellant's conviction. When faced with a non-constitutional error, such as the erroneous admission of evidence, an appellate court must determine whether the error affected the substantial rights of the appellant. See TEX.R.APP.P. 44.2(b); see also Murkledove, 437 S.W.3d at 28 (recognizing that the erroneous admission of evidence is non-constitutional error). A substantial right is affected when the error had a substantial and injurious effect or influence in determining the jury's verdict. Clement v. State, 499 S.W.3d 153, 157-58 (Tex.App.--Fort Worth 2016, pet. ref'd) (citing King v. State, 953 S.W.2d 266, 271 (Tex.Crim.App. 1997)). Conversely, an error does not affect a substantial right if we have "fair assurance that the error did not influence the jury, or had but a slight effect." Id. at 158 (citing Solomon v. State, 49 S.W.3d 356, 365 (Tex.Crim.App. 2001)). In applying the "harmless error" test, our primary question is whether there is a "reasonable possibility" that the error might have contributed to the conviction. Murkledove, 437 S.W.3d at 28 (citing Mosley v. State, 983 S.W.2d 249, 259 (Tex.Crim.App. 1998) (op. on reh'g), cert. denied, 526 U.S. 1070, 119 S.Ct. 1466, 143 L.Ed.2d 550 (1999)).
In making this determination, we review the record as a whole, including any testimony or physical evidence, the nature of the evidence supporting the verdict, the character of the alleged error and how it might be considered in connection with the other evidence, the jury instructions, the State's theory and any defensive theories, whether the State emphasized the error, closing arguments, and even voir dire if applicable. Clement, 499 S.W.3d at 158 (citing Motilla v. State, 78 S.W.3d 352, 355 (Tex.Crim.App. 2002)).
Appellant maintains that the admission of the evidence harmed his case because the State referred to him as being a drug dealer on at least five different occasions and it was heavily emphasized by prosecutors throughout the trial. Further, Appellant contends that there was no evidence presented that "would tend to show Appellant possessed the specific intent to murder Bustos and Rodriguez." In effect, he appears to believe that the admission of his drug dealing was the only evidence that led to his conviction.
Appellant admitted that he helped plan the robbery, and the evidence indicated that he was responsible for procuring the gun used in the robbery. He further admitted that he voluntarily went to Rodriguez's apartment to commit a robbery, and knowing that Acosta had a gun, the State was not required to prove that Appellant had any specific intent to assault, murder, or otherwise harm his victims while he was participating in the criminal transaction with Acosta. Instead, it was enough that he was present and intended to promote or assist the commission of the offense, and he was therefore subject to conviction for Acosta's actions in assaulting Rodriguez. Bleil, 496 S.W.3d at 202 (recognizing that the law of parties, as set forth in section 7.02 of the Texas Penal Code, does not require the State to prove that the defendant had a specific intent to commit an offense, and that it is enough if he had the intent to promote or assist the commission of the offense). Given the overwhelming evidence of Appellant's guilt, we conclude that the admission of the evidence that Appellant engaged in drug transactions, even if erroneously admitted, would not have had a substantial impact on the jury's verdict. We overrule Issue Four.
THE TEXAS "LAW OF PARTIES" IS NOT UNCONSTITUTIONAL
In his fifth, sixth, and seventh issues on appeal, Appellant contends that the Texas "law of parties" statute is unconstitutional because it lowers the burden of proof necessary to sustain a conviction, because it is "vague and indefinite," and because it violates the "right to free expression." We disagree with each of these arguments.
The Statute does not Impermissibly Lower the Burden of Proof for the State
Appellant correctly points out that in all criminal cases, the State has the burden of proving beyond a reasonable doubt the existence of every fact necessary to constitute the crime with which he is charged. See In re Winship, 397 U.S. 358, 364, 90 S.Ct. 1068, 1072-73, 25 L.Ed.2d 368 (1970); see also Jackson v. Virginia, 443 U.S. 307, 315-16, 99 S.Ct. 2781, 2787, 61 L.Ed.2d 560 (1979). Appellant then contends that the "law of parties'" doctrine unconstitutionally dilutes the State's burden of proof because it does not require the State to prove the underlying elements of an offense, and instead, only requires the State to establish that the defendant solicited, encouraged, directed, aided or attempted to aid another person in committing an offense with the intent to promote or assist the commission of the offense. This is not an accurate reflection of the State's burden of proof.
The relevant portion of the statute, which is found in section 7.02(a)(2) of the Texas Penal Code, provides that: "(a) A person is criminally responsible for an offense committed by the conduct of another if . . . (2) acting with intent to promote or assist the commission of the offense, he solicits, encourages, directs, aids, or attempts to aid the other person to commit the offense[.]" TEX.PENAL CODE ANN. § 7.02; see also TEX.PENAL CODE ANN. § 7.01 (a person is a criminally responsible party to an offense "if the offense is committed by his own conduct, by the conduct of another for which he is criminally responsible, or by both"). In determining whether a defendant participated in an offense as a party, the court may examine the events occurring before, during, and after the commission of the offense and may rely on actions of the defendant that show an understanding and common design to commit the offense. See Hanson v. State, 55 S.W.3d 681, 690 (Tex.App.--Austin 2001, pet. ref'd) (citing Burdine v. State, 719 S.W.2d 309, 315 (Tex.Crim.App. 1986); Beier v. State, 687 S.W.2d 2, 4 (Tex.Crim.App. 1985)). The evidence must show that at the time of the offense the parties were acting together, each contributing some part towards the execution of their common purpose. Burdine, 719 S.W.2d at 315; see also Beltran v. State, 472 S.W.3d 283, 290 (Tex.Crim.App. 2015) (recognizing that there must be sufficient evidence of an understanding and common design to commit the underlying offense); see also Bleil, 496 S.W.3d at 203 (recognizing that "circumstantial evidence may be used to prove party status as long as there is sufficient evidence of an understanding and common design to commit the offense").
Courts have recognized that to establish a defendant was a party to an offense under section 7.02, the State is "constitutionally required" to prove all elements of both the underlying offense, and the defendant's participation in the offense. Hanson v. State, 55 S.W.3d 681, 689 (Tex.App.--Austin 2001, pet. ref'd). In particular, the State must prove the following beyond a reasonable doubt: "(1) another person committed a criminal offense, (2) the defendant had the intent to promote or assist that person, and (3) the defendant solicited, encouraged, directed, aided or attempted to aid that person in the commission of the criminal offense." Id. (citing TEX.PENAL CODE ANN. § 7.02(a)(2); Pesina v. State, 949 S.W.2d 374, 382 (Tex.App.--San Antonio 1997, no pet.)).
In the abstract portion of the charge, the trial court instructed the jury that a person could be found criminally responsible as a party to an offense under the statute, as well as the elements of the various offenses with which Appellant was charged. In the application portion, the trial court expressly instructed the jurors that they were required to find "beyond a reasonable doubt" that Appellant "either by his own conduct or as a party," committed the various offenses with which he was charged. This instruction was sufficient to ensure that the jury knew that they were required to find beyond a reasonable doubt, not only that the underlying offenses were committed, but that Appellant was a party to committing those offenses. See e.g., Vasquez v. State, 389 S.W.3d 361, 371 (Tex.Crim.App. 2012) (approving similar instruction and noting that the jury would not have been confused or misled about what was required to find the defendant criminally responsible); see also Chatman v. State, 846 S.W.2d 329, 332 (Tex.Crim.App. 1993) (approving similar instruction).
The Austin Court of Appeals rejected a similar attack on the constitutionality of the doctrine in which a defendant argued that it relieved the State of its burden of proving that a defendant had the requisite mental state to be held criminally responsible for committing an offense. See, e.g., Gravis v. State, 982 S.W.2d 933, 938 (Tex.App.--Austin 1998, pet. ref'd). In rejecting that argument, the court noted that under the law of parties doctrine, the State was still required "to show that the defendant had both the mens rea to engage in a conspiracy and the culpable mental state to commit . . . the intended, felony." Id. (recognizing that the "mental state required for the underlying felony supplies the mens rea for the felony actually committed by the co-conspirator"); see also Smith v. State, 187 S.W.3d 186, 194 (Tex.App.--Fort Worth 2006, pet. ref'd) (statute requiring proof of intent to engage in a conspiracy to commit felony offense that resulted in capital murder was not unconstitutional as applied to defendant, even though defendant argued that statute allowed him to be convicted of capital murder without proof that he possessed requisite intent to kill; statute conformed to and preserved traditional mens rea requirement of criminal law, and ample evidence showed that defendant intended to engage in conspiracy to commit robbery that resulted in capital murder in his case). We conclude that the law of parties statute does not unconstitutionally dilute the State's burden of proof.
The Statute is not Unconstitutionally Vague or Overbroad
Appellant next argues that the doctrine is unconstitutionally vague on its face because it fails to give "fair notice" to citizens of what may constitute an unlawful act and because it impermissibly restricts a citizen's right to the exercise of free speech right. The facial validity of a statute is a question of law. See Cruz v. Abbott, 177 F.Supp.3d 992, 1017 (W.D. Tex. 2016), rev'd in part, 849 F.3d 594 (5th Cir. 2017) (citing Vill. of Hoffman Estates, Inc. v. Flipside, Hoffman Estates, Inc., 455 U.S. 489, 494-95, 102 S.Ct. 1186, 71 L.Ed.2d 362 (1982); Ctr. for Individual Freedom v. Carmouche, 449 F.3d 655, 662 (5th Cir. 2006)). When a party challenges a statute as both overbroad and vague, we first consider the overbreadth challenge. See State v. Stubbs, 502 S.W.3d 218, 232 (Tex.App.--Houston [14th Dist.] 2016, pet. ref'd); see also Cruz, 177 F.Supp.3d at 1017. In conducting an overbreadth analysis, a court must determine whether the statute reaches a "substantial amount of protected conduct." Cruz, 177 F.Supp.3d at 1017 (citing U.S. v. Clark, 582 F.3d 607, 612 (5th Cir. 2009)); see also Stubbs, 502 S.W.3d at 232 (a statute or ordinance is facially overbroad if it reaches a substantial amount of constitutionally protected conduct, such as speech or conduct protected by the First Amendment). If the challenged statute is not overbroad, then the court must "examine the facial vagueness challenge and, if the enactment implicates no constitutionally protected conduct, [the Court] should uphold the challenge only if the enactment is impermissibly vague in all of its applications." Cruz, 177 F.Supp.3d at 1017-18 (citing Hoffman, 455 U.S. at 494-95, 102 S.Ct. at 1186).
Overbreadth and First Amendment Considerations
In what appears to be an overbreadth argument, Appellant contends that the law of parties statute violates a citizen's First Amendment right to free expression, because it allows an individual to be prosecuted for simply "encouraging" another individual to engage in conduct. Appellant argues that the word "encourage" as used in the statute likely refers to both "verbal and non-verbal speech," which subjects it to "strict scrutiny." He then argues that the use of this language is too broad, as the Legislature could have achieved its intended result of prohibiting people from participating in a criminal offense, by restricting criminal responsibility to situations in which a defendant aided or solicited another person to commit a crime. He contends that by using the word "encourage," the State "unlawfully restricts freedom of speech and expression[,]" and "punishes innocent activity as well as criminal activity."
Appellant only directs us to one case in support of his argument that the statute is unconstitutional. Coates v. City of Cincinnati, 402 U.S. 611, 91 S.Ct. 1686, 29 L.Ed.2d 214 (1971). There the Supreme Court held that a criminal ordinance prohibiting three or more persons from assembling in a manner "annoying to persons passing by," was not only unconstitutionally vague but was also overbroad, as it infringed on a defendant's right to free speech and assembly. The court found it significant that although the ordinance encompassed many types of conduct that the City had the authority to prohibit, such as preventing people from blocking sidewalks, obstructing traffic, or littering, it was unconstitutionally overbroad, as its enforcement "may entirely depend upon whether or not a policeman is annoyed." Id. at 614, 91 S.Ct. at 1688. In other words, the statute allowed for prosecution in cases in which the defendant was not acting in a criminal manner whatsoever, but was simply acting in an innocent manner that might have offended a particular officer's sensibilities. Id.
The Texas law of parties is not so broadly worded as to infringe upon any such innocent activity protected by the First Amendment. The statute clearly states that a person is criminally responsible for an offense committed by the conduct of another only if the person acted "with intent to promote or assist the commission of the offense . . . encourages . . . the other person to commit the offense[.]" TEX.PENAL CODE ANN. § 7.02(a). The statute makes it clear that the encouragement must be directed at the commission of a criminal offense. Appellant has not pointed to any impermissible applications of the statute which could possibly implicate a defendant's First Amendment rights, and given the limiting language in the statute, we cannot conceive of any. See Martin v. State, 704 S.W.2d 892, 894 (Tex.App.--Houston [14th Dist.] 1986, no pet.) (rejecting appellant's argument that the law of parties statute was unconstitutionally overbroad); see generally Stubbs, 502 S.W.3d at 234 (statute that prohibited online impersonation, which required the State to prove that it was performed with a criminal intent, was not unconstitutionally overbroad despite implicating a defendant's speech); see also Ex parte Harrington, 499 S.W.3d 142, 148 (Tex.App.--Houston [14th Dist.] 2016, pet. ref'd) (concluding that identity theft statute is not constitutionally overbroad and rejecting argument that it was a "thought crime," noting that the "thought itself would not be punishable, but the proscribed activity would be.").
Vagueness
Appellant next argues that the law of parties statute is unconstitutionally vague as it prohibits a person from acting in a way that "encourages" another individual to commit an offense, but does not define that term and therefore does not give "fair notice" of the type of activity that is prohibited by the statute. He points out that a statute may be deemed unconstitutionally vague under the "void-for-vagueness" doctrine, if it does not define the criminal offense with sufficient definiteness that would allow ordinary people to understand what conduct is prohibited. The statute must be sufficiently definite so that it does not open up the possibility of arbitrary and discriminatory enforcement. See Sanchez v. State, 995 S.W.2d 677, 689 (Tex.Crim.App. 1999) (the Due Process Clause requires that a law be specific enough to: (1) give a person of ordinary intelligence a reasonable opportunity to know what is prohibited, and (2) establish determinate guidelines for law enforcement); see also Kramer v. Price, 712 F.2d 174 (5th Cir. 1983). Appellant argues that because the statute does not define the term "encourage," it is not sufficiently definite for a citizen to understand what type of conduct is prohibited, and we should therefore declare the statute unconstitutional on its face.
Once again, Appellant relies solely on Coates, 402 U.S. at 611. The Supreme Court reviewed a criminal ordinance that prohibited three or more persons from assembling in a manner "annoying to persons passing by." Id. In addition to finding the statute overly-broad, the court also found that it was unconstitutionally vague by its use of the term "annoying," noting that "[c]onduct that annoys some people does not annoy others." Id. at 614, 91 S.Ct. at 1688. In reaching this conclusion, the court noted that the statute was impermissibly vague, not in the sense that it required a person to "conform his conduct to an imprecise but comprehensible normative standard," but "no standard of conduct is specified at all." Id. Indeed, the court concluded that "men of common intelligence must necessarily guess at its meaning." Id. (citing Connally v. General Construction Co., 269 U.S. 385, 391, 46 S.Ct. 126, 127, 70 L.Ed. 322). Appellant seeks to analogize the statute to the one in Coates, contending that although the statute makes it a crime to engage in conduct that "encourages" another individual, it fails to define that term, and provides no "articulable standard" to "help the public understand what 'encourage' means" in that context. We reject this analogy.
First, if a litigant wishes to challenge a statute as being unconstitutionally vague on its face under the Due Process Clause, the litigant must establish that the statute is vague in all its applications, and must necessarily prove that it is vague as to the litigant himself. See Sanchez, 995 S.W.2d at 683. If the defendant has engaged "in some conduct that is clearly proscribed," he is not in a position to complain of the vagueness of the statute; in other words, he may not complain about the vagueness of the statute, "as applied to the conduct of others." Id. (citing Village of Hoffman Estates, 455 U.S. at 495, 102 S.Ct. 1186)); see also Kuhl v. State, 497 S.W.3d 128, 130 (Tex.App.--Texarkana 2016, no pet.) (it is incumbent upon a defendant asserting a facial vagueness challenge to a statute to show that in its operation the statute is unconstitutional to him in his situation; that it may be unconstitutional as to others is not sufficient). As various courts have recognized, "'[o]bjections to vagueness under the Due Process Clause rest on the lack of notice and hence may be overcome in any specific case where reasonable persons would know that their conduct is at risk.'" See United States v. Clark, 582 F.3d 607, 613 (5th Cir. 2009) (quoting Maynard v. Cartwright, 486 U.S. 356, 361, 108 S.Ct. 1853, 100 L.Ed.2d 372 (1988)). Thus, "[i]f a reasonable person would know his conduct was covered by the statute, then there has been no failure of notice to that individual." See Cruz, 177 F.Supp.3d at 1018 (citing Maynard, 486 U.S. at 361, 108 S.Ct. at 1853). We must first determine whether the statute was vague as applied to Appellant's conduct, and if it is, we will then address the facial challenge to the statute. If not, our inquiry will end.
We recognize that if a statute implicates the free-speech guarantee, then the defendant, in making a vagueness challenge, "is relieved of the usual requirement of showing that the statutory subsection was unduly vague as applied to his conduct." Scott v. State, 322 S.W.3d 662, 668 (Tex.Crim.App. 2010), abrogated on other grounds by Wilson v. State, 448 S.W.3d 418 (Tex.Crim.App. 2014); see also Long v. State, 931 S.W.2d 285, 288 (Tex.Crim.App. 1996) (when a "vagueness challenge involves First Amendment considerations, a criminal law may be held facially invalid even though it may not be unconstitutional as applied to the defendant's conduct"). As we have already concluded that the statute did not violate the First Amendment, we conclude that Appellant is subject to this requirement.
Appellant admitted at trial that he planned to conduct a robbery with Jose Acosta, and that he procured a gun to use in the robbery. Further, the evidence indicated that Appellant entered Bustos's apartment at Acosta's request, knowing that Acosta was already inside the apartment with a gun, and thereafter willingly participated in robbing both Bustos and Rodriguez at gunpoint. While Appellant did not directly shoot the victims, his actions in procuring the gun and participating in the robbery clearly amounted to conduct that either encouraged, aided, or assisted Acosta in committing the offenses for which Appellant was accused. We conclude that a reasonable person would have known that this conduct, which was directed at assisting another individual to commit a criminal offense, was covered by the statute. Appellant is therefore not in a position to complain about the vagueness of the terms used in the statute.
Moreover, unlike the statute in Coates, the law of parties statute provides fair notice to citizens of what type of conduct is prohibited. It makes clear that the prohibited activity is the participation in criminal conduct, and we therefore do not believe that it would be difficult for a person of ordinary intelligence to understand exactly what type of participation is prohibited by the statute. See, e.g., Martin, 704 S.W.2d at 894 (rejecting appellant's argument that the law of parties statute was unconstitutionally vague, noting that when read in its entirety, it is clear that the statute, "[w]hen each or all of the challenged words are read in conjunction with the beginning phrase 'acting with intent to promote or assist the commission of the offense,' we fail to understand any basis for a constitutional attack"); see also Koonce v. State, 654 S.W.2d 705, 711 (Tex.App.--Houston [14th Dist.] 1983, pet. ref'd) (rejecting appellant's argument that the law of parties statute was void for vagueness for failing to give "fair notice of forbidden conduct" when an individual is acting in conspiracy with others). We overrule Issues Five, Six, and Seven.
CONCLUSION
We affirm the trial court's judgment and sentence for attempted capital murder (Count One) and aggravated robbery (Count Two), and set aside Appellant's conviction for aggravated assault (Count Three) on the grounds of double jeopardy. We reform the judgment accordingly.
ANN CRAWFORD McCLURE, Chief Justice February 23, 2018 Before McClure, C.J., Rodriguez, and Hughes, JJ.
Hughes, J., not participating (Do Not Publish)