ELDRIDGE, Judge.

This case presents several important issues concerning court review of jurors' punitive damages awards in tort actions.

I.

In March 1988, the petitioner Samuel David Bowden, an African-American then sixteen years of age, was hired by the respondent Caldor, a regional retail department store chain, to work as a customer service representative in one of its Baltimore area stores. Shortly after reporting to work on June 15, 1988, Bowden was detained and interrogated for over four hours in a small, windowless office in the store by two employees of Caldor's security department, who accused him of stealing money and merchandise from the store. Bowden repeatedly denied their accusations. He made several attempts to leave the room or call his parents, but each time he was prevented from doing so by the security officers.

Bowden, out of fear, finally capitulated to the security officers' demands and signed a written statement, dictated by the security personnel, stating that he was responsible for thefts of money from the store. He was finally allowed to leave the store at approximately 11:00 p.m., nearly two hours after the store's scheduled closing time.

Bowden informed his parents of these events, and he and his mother returned to the store the following day to discuss the matter with the store's security manager and another store manager. During the discussion, the store manager shouted racial slurs at Bowden. The security officer, in the presence of Bowden's mother, grabbed Bowden's arm, led him to his office inside the store, and demanded that he and his parents make restitution for the alleged thefts. When Bowden refused his demands, he was handcuffed and paraded through the store in full view of his fellow employees and store customers. He remained in full public view until Baltimore County police officers arrived and arrested him.

In December 1988, a juvenile court dismissed the charges against Bowden, finding that there was insufficient evidence from which to conclude that he had committed thefts from the store. In fact, there was no evidence that there had been any thefts.

Thereafter, Bowden commenced a civil action against Caldor and several of its security personnel in the Circuit Court for Baltimore City, seeking compensatory and punitive damages. His complaint contained five counts charging false imprisonment, malicious prosecution, defamation, wrongful discharge, and intentional infliction of emotional distress. Following a jury trial, Bowden was awarded $110,000 in compensatory damages, apportioned in varying amounts among the five torts. At the conclusion of a separate trial solely on punitive damages, the jury awarded Bowden $350,000 in punitive damages against Caldor. There was no indication, however, of the manner in which the award was to be apportioned among the five separate alleged causes of action.

Following the verdict, Caldor filed motions for judgment notwithstanding the verdict (JNOV), a new trial, and/or a remittitur. The circuit court granted the JNOV motion on the wrongful discharge and intentional infliction of emotional distress counts but denied the motion as to the remaining three counts. The effect of the Court's action was to reduce the compensatory damages award against Caldor from $110,000 to $60,000. The court also denied Caldor's motion for a new trial on punitive damages, and the court left the punitive damages award intact.

Caldor and Bowden both timely appealed to the Court of Special Appeals, and this Court issued a writ of certiorari prior to argument in the intermediate appellate court. While affirming the circuit court's post-trial rulings concerning liability, this Court reversed its denial of a new trial on the issue of punitive damages. Caldor, Inc. v. Bowden, 330 Md. 632, 641-664, 625 A.2d 959, 963-974 (1993). In so doing, the Court pointed out that there had been no apportionment of the punitive damages award among the various tort counts. Judge Chasanow for the Court explained ( 330 Md. at 663, 625 A.2d at 974):

"[O]ne of the purposes of punitive damages is to punish the wrongs of the defendant. The requirement of a compensatory damages foundation protects defendants from being punished for acts that the trial court determines the defendant did not commit. In assessing punitive damages, a jury might have been influenced by the number of distinct civil wrongs the defendants committed. In light of this concern and the clear weight of authority cited above, the award of punitive damages must be vacated and a new trial ordered for the sole purpose of calculating punitive damages based on the three remaining torts of false imprisonment, defamation, and malicious prosecution."

The case was remanded to the circuit court for a new trial on punitive damages.

A second trial on punitive damages was held before a jury in the Circuit Court for Baltimore City. The transcribed testimony of the witnesses called during the first trial was read to the new jury, and both sides were allowed to present any new evidence relevant to punitive damages. Bowden presented evidence of Caldor's financial condition and pecuniary resources. Caldor presented evidence of its loss prevention and store security policies.

Following the presentation of all evidence by both sides, the jury was instructed as to the policy and purposes underlying punitive damages awards, and the degree of proof required for such awards. The jury was informed of the amount of compensatory damages awarded in the first trial on the false imprisonment, defamation, and malicious prosecution counts, but it was not told of the amount of the first award of punitive damages. The jury subsequently awarded Bowden $9 million in punitive damages against Caldor, consisting of $3 million each for malicious prosecution, false imprisonment, and defamation.

Caldor timely filed a "Motion for remittitur and/or JNOV and/or for a new trial." The circuit court denied the motions for JNOV and a new trial. Nevertheless the court, holding that the award was excessive, granted the motion for a remittitur. The court reduced the amount of the punitive damages award against Caldor to $350,000, the exact amount awarded in the first trial, and apportioned the award among the three torts. Although the circuit court purported to rely on several factors in reducing the punitive damages award to $350,000, the most important factor was that an award exceeding the prior jury award would have a "chilling effect" on a defendant's right to appeal. The circuit court thus stated:

"To subject the defendants to nine million dollars in punitive damages after they successfully appealed an award of $350,000 strikes me as [a] kind of arbitrariness and violation of fundamental fairness . . .; and if there were no other reason to grant remittitur, for that reason alone, even though we're breaking new ground here and even though . . . North Carolina v. Pearce is somewhat of an attenuated, analogous, persuasive vehicle for reasoning, it stands out loud and clear that the Court of Appeals doesn't intend to bushwhack successful appellants and that the price of succeeding on appeal is not to be hit with a very large damage claim because that would have a chilling effect on people appealing in certain areas.

"And in order not to foreclose appellants' rights to appeal, knowing that they're going to suffer grave consequences by succeeding on appeal, there is no way that I can envision that the Court of Appeals would permit this nine million dollar verdict to stand where the original verdict was $350,000.

"So, if it were not for that reason — if there were not other reasons to join this, for that reason alone . . . that in the context of the retrial it appears to be totally inappropriate to allow that except, again, using the analogy of North Carolina v. Pearce, where there is subsequent identifiable misconduct.

"So that if Caldor had continued to harass Mr. Bowden, attempted to stop him from getting employment in the Baltimore City Police Department, had conducted a fear campaign against his mother and father, then I think an award greater than $350,000 could have occurred. . . ."

Bowden appealed to the Court of Special Appeals, and Caldor noted a "conditional cross-appeal" to that court. The Court of Special Appeals affirmed in an unreported opinion. The intermediate appellate court, after noting that it "would ordinarily have grave doubts about the constitutionality" of the circuit court's failure to offer Bowden the option of either accepting the remittitur or having a new trial ordered, nevertheless concluded that this Court's prior mandate and opinion in the matter placed the case on "different ground." The intermediate appellate court interpreted our earlier mandate and opinion in Caldor, Inc. v. Bowden, supra, as providing that the amount of punitive damages awarded on remand could not exceed the $350,000 awarded at the first trial. The Court of Special Appeals explained as follows:

"[A]bsent subsequent evidence on remand of extraordinary circumstances bearing on the factors governing an award of punitive damages, the Court of Appeals did not envision that the damage award would have increased as a result of the retrial. Otherwise, the Court's discussion leading up to the remand for purposes of recalculation, stating that the jury may have been influenced by the distinct number of civil wrongs committed by Caldor, would have been mere surplusage. In fact, we doubt that if the Court of Appeals believed that a nearly thirty-fold increase in the award would be forthcoming, [it] would have thought it proper to remand the case.

* * *

"Thus . . . because a punitive damage award on retrial in excess of what was awarded in the original trial is inconsistent with the mandate and opinion of the Court of Appeals, then it necessarily follows that there would be no constructive purpose of the trial court to offer [Bowden] the choice between remittitur and a new trial because no matter how many new trials were given, a verdict over $350,000 would not be permitted to stand."

Since the Court of Special Appeals affirmed the $350,000 judgment, it did not address Caldor's conditional cross-appeal.

Thereafter, Bowden filed in this Court a petition for a writ of certiorari, which we granted. Bowden v. Caldor, 343 Md. 745, 684 A.2d 836 (1996).

Bowden argues that the Court of Special Appeals erroneously construed this Court's earlier opinion and mandate as precluding a punitive damages award on retrial that would exceed $350,000. Bowden further asserts that the circuit court, in reviewing the jury's award of punitive damages, erred by drawing an analogy to the principle of North Carolina v. Pearce, 395 U.S. 711, 89 S.Ct. 2072, 23 L.Ed.2d 656 (1969). Bowden contends that the Pearce principle, based on the danger of a chilling effect on the right to appeal, applies only in criminal cases and has no application to civil cases of this nature. According to Bowden, a proper court review of the jury's $9 million dollar punitive damages award against Caldor would lead to the conclusion that the award was not excessive. He requests that this Court order that the $9 million award be reinstated. Bowden also claims that the circuit court's reduction of the jury's award, without giving him the option of a new trial on punitive damages, is improper and violates his right to a jury trial under the second paragraph of Article 23 of the Maryland Declaration of Rights. Bowden insists that a court may not, on the ground of excessiveness, reduce a jury's award of punitive damages in favor of a plaintiff without affording the plaintiff the option of a new jury trial. Consequently, under Bowden's view, if we remand the case for the circuit court to conduct a new review of the $9 million punitive damages award, a remittitur must be accompanied by the option to Bowden of a new trial.

Caldor, on the other hand, defends both the ruling of the Court of Special Appeals and the ruling of the circuit court. Furthermore Caldor contends that if a trial judge, after reviewing a jury's award of punitive damages in favor of a plaintiff, concludes that the award is excessive, the judge may reduce the award without granting the plaintiff the option of a new trial on punitive damages. Thus, Caldor requests that the judgment of the circuit court be affirmed. Alternatively, Caldor contends that if this Court holds that the circuit court committed error, then we should order that the case be remanded to the circuit court for that court to review the $9 million award under the proper standards. In addition, Caldor argues that, if we do not affirm the judgment below, Caldor's "conditional cross-appeal" should be considered.

II.

Both the Court of Special Appeals and the circuit court erred in holding that, because of the earlier appeal, the punitive damages award after a new trial could not exceed $350,000.

Although our prior opinion and mandate directed a new trial solely on punitive damages, nothing in that opinion or mandate indicated that the $350,000 in punitive damages awarded by the first jury constituted a "cap" on the amount of punitive damages that could be awarded by the second jury. The final sentence of our prior opinion stated that "we are remanding the case for a new determination of punitive damages," and our mandate simply directed "further proceedings consistent with this opinion. . . ." Caldor v. Bowden, supra, 330 Md. at 664, 625 A.2d at 974. The fact that we found error prejudicial to Caldor, in connection with the $350,000 punitive damages award at the first trial, does not mean that the punitive damages award after a second trial must be $350,000 or less. The evidence at the second trial might be materially different.

Turning to the circuit court's decision, no principle analogous to that set forth in North Carolina v. Pearce, supra, is applicable in civil tort actions for money damages. In North Carolina v. Pearce, the Supreme Court held that in a criminal case, the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment bars a sentencing authority, usually a judge, from subjecting a defendant to a harsher sentence, after a retrial following the defendant's successful appeal, than the sentence which had been imposed at the first trial, unless the defendant committed identifiable acts of misconduct subsequent to the original sentencing proceeding. 395 U.S. at 723-726, 89 S.Ct. at 2079-2081, 23 L.Ed.2d at 668-670. According to the Supreme Court, a criminal defendant's apprehension of a greater sentence if he successfully appeals would chill the statutory right of appeal. 395 U.S. at 724-725, 89 S.Ct. at 2080, 23 L.Ed.2d at 668-669. No decision of this Court, of the Supreme Court, or of the highest court in any state, applying this rationale to a civil tort action for money damages, has been called to our attention.

When an appellate court reverses a judgment for compensatory damages, or punitive damages, or both, and remands for a new trial without expressly limiting the scope of that new trial, the evidence at the new trial and the legal standards applied at the new trial determine whether there should be an award of damages and, if so, the amount of that award. See, e.g., Middle States v. Thomas, 340 Md. 699, 703-704, 668 A.2d 5, 7-8 (1995), and cases there cited; Owens-Illinois v. Zenobia, 325 Md. 420, 472, 601 A.2d 633, 659 (1992). The "effect of the granting of a new trial is to set aside the [judgment] and leave the cause in the same condition as if no judgment had been entered." Tiller v. Elfenbein, 205 Md. 14, 19, 106 A.2d 42, 44 (1954). See Cook v. Toney, 245 Md. 42, 49, 224 A.2d 857, 861 (1966); Snyder v. Cearfoss, 186 Md. 360, 367, 46 A.2d 607, 610 (1946).

This Court's recent opinion in Middle States v. Thomas, supra, 340 Md. 699, 668 A.2d 5, is instructive. The Court of Special Appeals in that case reversed judgments on two tort counts and remanded for a new trial. Because, in the view of the Court of Special Appeals, the evidence at the first trial was sufficient for the issue of punitive damages to be submitted to the jury, the Court of Special Appeals directed that, at the new trial, the issue of punitive damages be submitted to the jury. This Court vacated the directive concerning the submission to the jury of the claim for punitive damages, pointing out that what happened at the prior trial should not govern what should happen at the new trial. We explained as follows ( 340 Md. at 703-704, 668 A.2d at 7-8):

"When an appellate court remands a tort case for a new trial on, inter alia, punitive damages, the question of whether the claim for punitive damages should be submitted to the jury depends upon the evidence at that new trial and not upon the evidence at the prior trial.

* * *

"[T]he parties at a new trial on punitive damages are not limited to the same evidence produced at the prior trial. The evidence produced at the new trial may turn out to be significantly different from the evidence that was introduced at the earlier trial. Simply because an appellate court believes that the evidence at the prior trial was sufficient to generate a jury issue on punitive damages does not mean that the evidence at the trial to be held in the future will be sufficient."

See also Owens-Illinois v. Zenobia, supra, 325 Md. at 472, 601 A.2d at 659.

In the case at bar, the initial $350,000 punitive damages award was eliminated when it was reversed by this Court. Any award of punitive damages, and the amount of any such award, was totally dependent upon the evidence introduced at the new trial, upon Maryland law concerning punitive damages in tort actions of this nature, and upon the judgment of the jury at the new trial.

III.

"[L]ike any award of damages in a tort case, the amount of punitive damages awarded by a jury is reviewable by the trial court for excessiveness." Ellerin v. Fairfax Savings, 337 Md. 216, 242, 652 A.2d 1117, 1130 (1995). The circuit court was correct in undertaking a review of the $9 million jury award of punitive damages. As pointed out in Part II above, however, the circuit court erred in applying a principle analogous to that set forth in North Carolina v. Pearce, supra. Consequently, the case must be remanded to the circuit court for a new review of the punitive damages award. This requires us to consider what legal principles or factors should guide a trial judge in reviewing for excessiveness a jury's punitive damages award, and, upon a determination that the award is excessive, in arriving at the amount of the reduction.

A.

Before reviewing a punitive damages award for excessiveness, however, a trial judge should first consider any arguments made by the parties in post-verdict motions relating to the allowability of punitive damages. Under Maryland law, punitive damages are allowable only in tort actions. Middle States v. Thomas, supra, 340 Md. at 702, 668 A.2d at 7; Alexander Alexander Inc. v. B. Dixon Evander Assoc., Inc., 336 Md. 635, 645-646 n. 8, 650 A.2d 260, 265 n. 8 (1994); K K Management v. Lee, 316 Md. 137, 169-170, 557 A.2d 965, 981 (1989). Moreover, for a plaintiff to recover punitive damages, the complaint must contain a specific claim for punitive damages and "must set forth facts that, if proven true, would entitle the plaintiff to punitive damages." Scott v. Jenkins, 345 Md. 21, 25, 690 A.2d 1000, 1001 (1997).

We have stated that the "purpose of punitive damages is . . . to punish the defendant for egregiously bad conduct toward the plaintiff, [and] also to deter the defendant and others contemplating similar behavior." Owens-Corning v. Garrett, 343 Md. 500, 537-538, 682 A.2d 1143, 1161 (1996). "Awarding punitive damages based upon the heinous nature of the defendant's tortious conduct furthers the historical purposes of punitive damages — punishment and deterrence." Owens-Illinois v. Zenobia, supra, 325 Md. at 454, 601 A.2d at 649-650.

Consequently, "'with respect to both intentional and non-intentional torts, . . . an award of punitive damages must be based upon actual malice, in the sense of conscious and deliberate wrongdoing, evil or wrongful motive, intent to injure, ill will, or fraud.'" Scott v. Jenkins, supra, 345 Md. at 33, 690 A.2d at 1006, quoting Montgomery Ward v. Wilson, 339 Md. 701, 733, 664 A.2d 916, 932 (1995). See, e.g., Ellerin v. Fairfax Savings, supra, 337 Md. at 228-229, 652 A.2d at 1123 ("Maryland law has limited the availability of punitive damages to situations in which the defendant's conduct is characterized by knowing and deliberate wrongdoing. * * * [P]unitive damages may only be awarded . . . when 'the plaintiff has established that the defendant's conduct was characterized by evil motive, intent to injure, ill will, or fraud,'" quoting Owens-Illinois v. Zenobia, supra, 325 Md. at 460, 601 A.2d at 652); Komornik v. Sparks, 331 Md. 720, 724-730, 629 A.2d 721, 723-726 (1993); Adams v. Coates, 331 Md. 1, 13, 626 A.2d 36, 42 (1993). Punitive damages are not recoverable based upon any theory of "implied malice," either in the sense of gross negligence or in the sense of inferring malice from an element of the tort. Montgomery Ward v. Wilson, supra, 339 Md. at 728-729 n. 5, 734-736, 664 A.2d at 929-930 n. 5, 932-933.

Furthermore, not all of the forms of "actual malice" are pertinent to every type of tort action. For example, in a defamation action, punitive damages are not recoverable based upon ill will, spite, or an intent to injure; instead, to recover punitive damages, the plaintiff must establish that the defamatory falsehood was made with actual knowledge that it was false. See LeMarc's Management Corp. v. Valentin, 349 Md. 645, 709 A.2d 1222 (1998); Telnikoff v. Matusevitch, 347 Md. 561, 594-595, 702 A.2d 230, 246-247 (1997). See also Marchesi v. Franchino, 283 Md. 131, 138-139, 387 A.2d 1129, 1133 (1978); General Motors Corp. v. Piskor, 277 Md. 165, 174-175, 352 A.2d 810, 816-817 (1976); Jacron Sales Co. v. Sindorf, 276 Md. 580, 601, 350 A.2d 688, 700 (1976). Similarly, in an action of deceit, punitive damages are allowable only where it is proven that the defendant "knows that his representation is false;" a recovery in deceit based upon the defendant's "'reckless disregard' or 'reckless indifference' concerning the truth of the representation falls short of the mens rea which is required to support an award of punitive damages." Ellerin v. Fairfax Savings, supra, 337 Md. at 235, 652 A.2d at 1126. In a malicious prosecution action, the form of "actual malice" which must be established for the recovery of punitive damages "consists of an improper or wrongful motive in causing the initiation of criminal proceedings against the plaintiff." Montgomery Ward v. Wilson, supra, 339 Md. at 734, 664 A.2d at 932. For punitive damages to be recoverable in a products liability action, the "plaintiff must show that the defendant actually knew of the defect and of the danger of the product at the time the product left the defendant's possession or control," and "the plaintiff is required to show that, armed with this actual knowledge, the defendant consciously or deliberately disregarded the potential harm to consumers." Owens-Illinois v. Zenobia, supra, 325 Md. at 462-463, 601 A.2d at 653-654. See also, e.g., ACandS v. Asner, 344 Md. 155, 182-186, 686 A.2d 250, 263-265 (1996); Owens-Corning v. Garrett, supra, 343 Md. at 537-540, 682 A.2d at 1161-1162; ACandS v. Godwin, 340 Md. 334, 358-362, 667 A.2d 116, 127-129 (1995), and cases there cited; U.S. Gypsum v. Baltimore, 336 Md. 145, 187-188, 647 A.2d 405, 426 (1994).

Moreover, "a plaintiff must establish by clear and convincing evidence the basis for an award of punitive damages." Owens-Illinois v. Zenobia, supra, 325 Md. at 469, 601 A.2d at 657. As this Court explained in the Zenobia case,

"[u]se of a clear and convincing standard of proof will help to insure that punitive damages are properly awarded. We hold that the heightened standard is appropriate in the assessment of punitive damages because of their penal nature and potential for debilitating harm." Ibid.

See also, e.g., Scott v. Jenkins, supra, 345 Md. at 33, 690 A.2d at 1005; ACandS v. Asner, supra, 344 Md. at 184, 686 A.2d at 264; Owens-Corning v. Garrett, supra, 343 Md. at 540, 682 A.2d at 1162; ACandS v. Godwin, supra, 340 Md. at 359, 667 A.2d at 128.

In addition, there must be an award of compensatory damages for a particular tort in order for the plaintiff to receive an award of punitive damages based upon that tort. Caldor v. Bowden, supra, 330 Md. at 662-663, 625 A.2d at 973-974, and cases there cited. Finally, a plaintiff has no right or entitlement to punitive damages under Maryland law. "[T]he trier of fact has discretion to deny punitive damages even where the record otherwise would support their award." Adams v. Coates, supra, 331 Md. at 15, 626 A.2d at 43, and authorities there cited.

B.

As previously mentioned, in a tort case where punitive damages are allowable, the amount of punitive damages awarded by the trier of fact is reviewable by the court for excessiveness. Ellerin v. Fairfax Savings, supra, 337 Md. at 242, 652 A.2d at 1130. Furthermore, judicial review of punitive damages awards is a requirement of procedural due process. Honda Motor Co. v. Oberg, 512 U.S. 415, 114 S.Ct. 2331, 129 L.Ed.2d 336 (1994). We now turn to the legal principles or considerations which should guide a trial court in determining if a punitive damages award is excessive and, if it is held to be excessive, the extent of the reduction.

Preliminarily, we note that the Supreme Court in recent years has held that the United States Constitution imposes limits upon awards of punitive damages, and that such an award cannot be "'grossly excessive' in relation" to "the State's legitimate interests in punishment and deterrence." BMW of North America, Inc. v. Gore, 517 U.S. 559, 568, 116 S.Ct. 1589, 1595, 134 L.Ed.2d 809, 822 (1996). See TXO Production Corp. v. Alliance Resources Corp., 509 U.S. 443, 453-454, 113 S.Ct. 2711, 2718, 125 L.Ed.2d 366, 376-377 (1993); Pacific Mutual Life Insurance Co. v. Haslip, 499 U.S. 1, 18, 111 S.Ct. 1032, 1043, 113 L.Ed.2d 1, 20 (1991). Obviously, in reviewing a punitive damages award for excessiveness, a trial court cannot properly leave in effect an award which exceeds constitutional limits.

Many courts, in setting forth legal principles or factors to guide trial court review of punitive damages awards, have focused primarily or exclusively upon perceived constitutional requirements. Some recent opinions of the Court of Special Appeals appear to fall into this category. See, e.g., VF Corp. v. Wrexham Aviation, 112 Md. App. 703, 728-737, 686 A.2d 647, 659-664 (1996), cert. granted, 346 Md. 28, 694 A.2d 951 (1997); Market Tavern v. Bowen, 92 Md. App. 622, 636-639, 610 A.2d 295, 302-304, cert. denied, 328 Md. 238, 614 A.2d 84 (1992). Nevertheless, this Court adheres to the settled principle that a court should decide constitutional issues only when necessary. See, e.g., Telnikoff v. Matusevitch, supra, 347 Md. at 578-579 n. 15, 702 A.2d at 239 n. 15; Professional Nurses v. Dimensions Health Corp., 346 Md. 132, 138-139, 695 A.2d 158, 161 (1997); Insurance Commissioner v. Equitable, 339 Md. 596, 614, 664 A.2d 862, 871 (1995). Consequently, the legal principles discussed below, applicable to judicial review of punitive damages awards for excessiveness, are set forth as principles of Maryland common law. Although some of these principles may be the same as requirements imposed by other courts as a matter of constitutional law, we have no reason at this time to consider minimum constitutional requirements in this area.

Moreover, some of the principles set forth below have a foundation in prior Maryland case law, whereas others do not. Nonetheless, as often pointed out, this Court has authority under the Maryland Constitution to change the common law. Telnikoff v. Matusevitch, supra, 347 Md. at 593 n. 29, 702 A.2d at 246 n. 29; Owens-Illinois v. Zenobia, supra, 325 Md. at 469-470, 601 A.2d at 657-658, and cases there collected.

(1)

The most important legal rule in this area, applicable to every punitive damages award, is that the amount of punitive damages "must not be disproportionate to the gravity of the defendant's wrong." Ellerin v. Fairfax Savings, supra, 337 Md. at 242, 652 A.2d at 1129-1130. See, e.g., Embrey v. Holly, 293 Md. 128, 141, 442 A.2d 966, 973 (1982) ("punitive damages . . . must relate to the degree of culpability"); Schloss v. Silverman, 172 Md. 632, 644, 192 A. 343, 348 (1937) (stating, with regard to punitive damages, that "the 'punishment [must] fit the crime'"); Moore v. Schultz, 31 Md. 418, 424 (1869) (punitive damages "should not be disproportioned to the enormity of the case"). See also BMW of North America, Inc. v. Gore, supra, 517 U.S. at 575, 116 S.Ct. at 1599, 134 L.Ed.2d at 826 ("Perhaps the most important indicium of the reasonableness of a punitive damages award is the degree of reprehensibility of the defendant's conduct").

Furthermore, simply because the defendant has engaged in some "heinous" or "egregiously bad conduct" does not necessarily justify a large award of punitive damages. Under Maryland law, engagement in such conduct is a prerequisite for any award of punitive damages. Owens-Corning v. Garrett, supra, 343 Md. at 537-538, 682 A.2d at 1161; Owens-Illinois v. Zenobia, supra, 325 Md. at 454, 601 A.2d at 649-650. Accordingly, in determining whether the amount of the award is disproportionate to the gravity of the defendant's conduct, it is the degree of heinousness which is important. See BMW of North America, Inc. v. Gore, supra, 517 U.S. at 575, 116 S.Ct. at 1599, 134 L.Ed.2d at 826 ("some wrongs are more blameworthy than others").

(2)

A second very important principle, long recognized under Maryland law, is that the amount of punitive damages "should not be disproportionate to . . . the defendant's ability to pay." Ellerin v. Fairfax Savings, supra, 337 Md. at 242, 652 A.2d at 1130. See Embrey v. Holly, supra, 293 Md. at 141-142, 442 A.2d at 973 ("punitive damages . . . must relate to the . . . ability to pay"); Heinze v. Murphy, 180 Md. 423, 431, 24 A.2d 917, 921 (1942) ("'the pecuniary circumstances of the defendant are proper to be considered,'" quoting Sloan v. Edwards, 61 Md. 89, 101 (1883)). The purpose of punitive damages is not to bankrupt or impoverish a defendant. Fraidin v. Weitzman, 93 Md. App. 168, 212, 611 A.2d 1046, 1068 (1992), cert. denied, 329 Md. 109, 617 A.2d 1055 (1993) ("When a punitive damage award consumes a defendant's total wealth, it has ceased to serve the societal goal of punishment. A defendant need not be financially destroyed in order to be punished"); Jonathan Woodner Co. v. Breeden, 665 A.2d 929, 941 (D.C.App. 1995), cert. denied, ___ U.S. ___, 117 S.Ct. 1080, 137 L.Ed.2d 215 (1997) ("the amount of [punitive] damages should be . . . not so great as to exceed the boundaries of punishment and lead to bankruptcy"). Therefore, as numerous cases have made clear, a defendant's ability to pay is "a limiting factor which must be considered by the . . . trial court upon its review of the jury's award." Fraidin v. Weitzman, supra, 93 Md. App. at 212-215, 611 A.2d at 1068-1069, and cases there discussed. See also Mattison v. Dallas Carrier Corp., 947 F.2d 95, 110 (4th Cir. 1991).

On the other hand, merely because a defendant may be able to pay a very large award of punitive damages, without jeopardizing the defendant's financial position, does not justify an award which is disproportionate to the heinousness of the defendant's conduct. As the Supreme Court of Alabama stated in BMW of North America, Inc. v. Gore, 701 So.2d 507, 514 (Ala. 1997), following a remand from the Supreme Court of the United States,

"[i]t is clear that a punitive damages award of $2 million would not have a devastating impact upon BMW's financial position. However, where a defendant has not committed an act that would warrant a large punitive damages award, such an award should not be upheld upon judicial review merely because the defendant has the ability to pay it."

(3)

Since one of the purposes of punitive damages is to deter the defendant from engaging in the type of conduct forming the basis for the award, the deterrence value of the amount awarded by the jury, under all of the circumstances of the case, is relevant. Thus, in a products liability case, ACandS v. Godwin, supra, 340 Md. at 362, 667 A.2d at 129, with regard to punitive damages awards against sellers of asbestos products, Judge Rodowsky for the Court observed:

"In the case sub judice deterrence is . . . less a factor inasmuch as the three defendants involved with the punitive damages issues have not sold asbestos products for more than twenty years."

A defendant's taking of remedial or corrective action, promptly after the misconduct giving rise to the award of punitive damages, obviously should be a mitigating factor. Bennett v. Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corp., 896 S.W.2d 464, 468 (Mo. 1995). On the other hand, repeated or frequent misconduct of the same nature, misconduct of long duration, attempts to conceal or cover-up the misconduct, failure to take corrective action, and similar circumstances, support the deterrence value of a significant award. See, e.g., Scheufler v. General Host Corp., 126 F.3d 1261, 1271 (10th Cir. 1997); BMW of North America, Inc. v. Gore, supra, 701 So.2d at 512; Hyatt Regency v. Winston Strawn, 184 Ariz. 120, 134, 907 P.2d 506, 520 (1995), cert. denied, 517 U.S. 1234, 116 S.Ct. 1877, 135 L.Ed.2d 173 (1996); Call v. Heard, 925 S.W.2d 840, 849 (Mo. 1996), cert. denied, ___ U.S. ___, 117 S.Ct. 770, 136 L.Ed.2d 716 (1997); Gamble v. Stevenson, 305 S.C. 104, 111-112, 406 S.E.2d 350, 354 (1991). See also BMW of North America, Inc. v. Gore, supra, 517 U.S. at 584-585, 116 S.Ct. at 1603, 134 L.Ed.2d at 832 ("In the absence of a history of noncompliance with known statutory requirements, there is no basis for assuming that a more modest sanction would not have been sufficient to motivate" proper conduct by the defendant).

(4)

In Ellerin v. Fairfax Savings, supra, 337 Md. at 242-243 n. 13, 652 A.2d at 1130 n. 13, this Court noted as follows:

"As stated by the Court in Embrey v. Holly, supra, 293 Md. at 142, 442 A.2d at 973, '[p]unitive damages, in essence, represent a civil fine . . . .' In this connection, it is noteworthy that the largest maximum fine prescribed by the Maryland General Assembly for any single criminal offense is $1,000,000.00 under the drug kingpin statute, Maryland Code (1957, 1992 Repl.Vol., 1994 Cum.Supp.), Art. 27, § 286(g)(2)(ii). The greatest maximum fine for a so-called 'commercial' crime is $500,000.00 under the Maryland antitrust statute, Code (1975, 1990 Repl.Vol., 1994 Cum.Supp.), § 11-212 COM. LAW. of the Commercial Law Article.

* * *

"There are other pertinent considerations in fixing an amount of punitive damages, and we do not suggest that criminal monetary penalties should provide a cap for punitive damage awards. Nonetheless, in determining whether an award of punitive damages is proportionate to the defendant's misconduct, a court may consider, inter alia, the legislative policy reflected in statutes setting criminal fines."

More recently the Supreme Court of the United States made a similar point ( BMW of North America, Inc. v. Gore, supra, 517 U.S. at 583, 116 S.Ct. at 1603, 134 L.Ed.2d at 831):

"Comparing the punitive damages award and the civil or criminal penalties that could be imposed for comparable misconduct provides a third indicium of excessiveness. As Justice O'Connor has correctly observed, a reviewing court engaged in determining whether an award of punitive damages is excessive should 'accord "substantial deference" to legislative judgments concerning appropriate sanctions for the conduct at issue.' Browning-Ferris Industries of Vt., Inc. v. Kelco Disposal, Inc., 492 U.S. [257] 301, 109 S.Ct. 2909 [2934], 106 L.Ed.2d 219 [(1989)] (O'Connor, J., concurring in part and dissenting in part)."

Under some circumstances, the maximum criminal fine for comparable conduct should not be given very much weight in reviewing a punitive damages award for excessiveness. There are many serious criminal offenses chiefly aimed at individuals, rather than corporate entities, where the principal sanction is imprisonment, and the monetary penalty is relatively small. In this situation, the criminal fine for similar misconduct is not very pertinent in reviewing an award of punitive damages. In other situations, however, the maximum criminal or civil fine for similar conduct may be quite relevant. For example, if the defendant's malicious and wrongful conduct giving rise to the punitive damages award was the same as or similar to misconduct proscribed by the antitrust laws, the criminal and civil penalties under those laws have a great deal of relevance. Moreover, when a punitive damages award is several times higher than the largest criminal fine or civil penalty prescribed by the Legislature for any offense or misconduct, the award should be strictly scrutinized. See BMW of North America, Inc. v. Gore, 517 U.S. at 583-584 n. 38, 116 S.Ct. at 1603 n. 38, 134 L.Ed.2d at 831 n. 38.

(5)

Another appropriate consideration in judicially reviewing an award of punitive damages is to compare the award with other final punitive damages awards in the jurisdiction, and particularly with awards in somewhat comparable cases. See, e.g., BMW of North America, Inc. v. Gore, supra, 701 So.2d at 515 ("For guidance in determining the amount of punitive damages that would be proper, we have looked to comparable cases"). See also Pacific Mutual Life Insurance Co. v. Haslip, supra, 499 U.S. at 20-21, 111 S.Ct. at 1045, 113 L.Ed.2d at 21 (pointing to judicial review "undertak[ing] a comparative analysis" as an "additional check on the jury's . . . discretion"); Edwards v. Armstrong World Industries, Inc., 911 F.2d 1151, 1154 (5th Cir. 1990).

In Alexander Alexander Inc. v. B. Dixon Evander Assoc., Inc., 88 Md. App. 672, 720, 596 A.2d 687, 710-711 (1991), cert. denied, 326 Md. 435, 605 A.2d 137 (1992), Chief Judge Wilner for the Court of Special Appeals, in vacating an extremely large punitive damages award, stated:

"On this record, we do not believe that a $12.5 million punitive award comports with [the law]. Although we cannot say with complete certainty that it is the largest punitive award rendered by a Maryland court, it is the largest, by far, of which we are aware. The nearest in amount was $7,500,000 rendered in Potomac Electric v. Smith, 79 Md. App. 591, 558 A.2d 768 (1989), and the nearest to that was $1,000,000, which we vacated in Edmonds v. Murphy, supra, 83 Md. App. 133, 573 A.2d 853. Most of the punitive awards to date have been well under $100,000; other than the award in Potomac Electric, the highest allowed to stand was $910,000 against Exxon Corporation in Exxon Corp. v. Yarema, 69 Md. App. 124, 516 A.2d 990 (1986).

"[T]he $12.5 million allowed by the court [is] extraordinary in terms of Maryland history. . . ."

The cases in which punitive damages awards have been upheld by this Court are even more striking. Apparently the largest award of punitive damages which has ever been upheld by this Court was $700,000, and in that case the size of the award was not an issue before this Court. Franklin Square Hosp. v. Laubach, 318 Md. 615, 617-618, 569 A.2d 693, 694-695 (1990). The next ten highest awards of punitive damages upheld by us seem to be as follows: $107,875 ( St. Luke Church v. Smith, 318 Md. 337, 568 A.2d 35 (1990)); $100,000 each for two plaintiffs, based on two separate acts of fraud ( Nails v. S. R., 334 Md. 398, 639 A.2d 660 (1994)); $82,000 ( Luppino v. Gray, 336 Md. 194, 647 A.2d 429 (1994)); $50,000 ( Macklin v. Logan, 334 Md. 287, 639 A.2d 112 (1994)); $40,000 ( Embrey v. Holly, supra, 293 Md. 128, 442 A.2d 966); $36,000 ( Drug Fair of Md., Inc. v. Smith, 263 Md. 341, 283 A.2d 392 (1971)); $35,000 ( General Motors Corp. v. Piskor, 281 Md. 627, 381 A.2d 16 (1977)); $30,000 ( Great Atl. Pac. Tea Co. v. Paul, 256 Md. 643, 261 A.2d 731 (1970)); $25,000 ( Montgomery Ward Co. v. Keulemans, 275 Md. 441, 340 A.2d 705 (1975)); $25,000 ( American Stores Co. v. Byrd, 229 Md. 5, 181 A.2d 333 (1962)). Moreover, in most of these cases no argument was made that the punitive awards were excessive.

We recognize that the awards involved in the older cases cited above, if adjusted for inflation, would be larger in terms of present dollars. Nonetheless, a multi-million dollar award of punitive damages is entirely beyond the range of punitive damages awards previously upheld by this Court.

(6)

This Court in Owens-Illinois v. Zenobia, supra, 325 Md. at 473 n. 29, 601 A.2d at 659 n. 29, rejected an argument that the trial court should be required in every case to admit evidence, for a jury's consideration, of prior punitive damages awards against the same defendant "for the same 'course of conduct.'" It was argued that the existence of such other awards is a mitigating factor which, as a matter of "fundamental fairness guaranteed by the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment," the jury is entitled to consider. In disagreeing with this contention, we pointed out that the proponents ( ibid.)

"make no distinction between those punitive damage awards that are pending on appeal, those that have been reversed and those that have been paid. If an award of punitive damages has in fact been satisfied, the evidence of the defendant's financial means might in some cases reflect that payment. Furthermore, the admission of prior punitive damage awards would require the trial court to conduct a complicated evidentiary proceeding to determine if the defendant had in fact satisfied the punitive judgment. We decline to impose this onerous burden on the trial court."

We continue to adhere to this holding in Zenobia. A trial court is not required in a punitive damages trial to allow evidence to be submitted to the jury concerning punitive damages awards for the same conduct in other cases against the defendant.

In a post-verdict proceeding before the trial judge concerning the alleged excessiveness of the award, however, we believe that evidence of other final and satisfied punitive damages awards against the same defendant for the same conduct may be considered by the trial judge as a factor. See Pacific Mutual Life Insurance Co. v. Haslip, supra, 499 U.S. at 22, 111 S.Ct. at 1045, 113 L.Ed.2d at 22 (approving the consideration of "the existence of other civil awards against the defendant for the same conduct" as something "to be taken in mitigation"); Scheufler v. General Host Corp., supra, 126 F.3d at 1272; BMW of North America, Inc. v. Gore, supra, 701 So.2d at 515; Restatement (Second) of Torts, § 908, comment (e), second paragraph (1979). See also the extensive discussion of this matter by the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit in Dunn v. HOVIC, 1 F.3d 1371, 1385-1391 (3d Cir. 1993).

On the other hand, evidence indicating that there have been no other such awards of punitive damages against the defendant for the same conduct is also admissible and, depending upon the circumstances, may have weight as a non-mitigating factor.

(7)

When the total amount of punitive damages awarded against the defendant is based on separate torts, a pertinent consideration under Maryland case-law is whether the separate torts all grew out of a single occurrence or episode. Montgomery Ward Co. v. Cliser, 267 Md. 406, 298 A.2d 16 (1972), like the instant case, involved a retail store's wrongful and malicious accusation of theft against the plaintiff, a young man, and the false arrest of the plaintiff. The jury found that the store's personnel were guilty of three torts, namely false arrest, slander, and assault and battery. There were separate awards of compensatory damages for each of the three torts. In addition, the jury awarded $4,500 punitive damages for each of the three torts, so that the total amount of punitive damages awarded was $13,500. The trial judge left the awards intact. On appeal, this Court affirmed the judgment for compensatory damages but reduced the total amount of punitive damages awarded to $4,500. Since, in this Court's view, the three torts were all based on "'an episode that was one continuous occurrence,'" the "jury [improperly] 'pyramided' the claims into a triple recovery of punitive damages," 267 Md. at 425, 298 A.2d at 27.

This principle of Montgomery Ward Co. v. Cliser, supra, has been reaffirmed by us on several occasions. For example, in Natural Design, Inc. v. Rouse Co., 302 Md. 47, 76, 485 A.2d 663, 678 (1984), the Court stated:

"Turning to the matter of damages, the plaintiffs seek treble damages under the antitrust restraint of trade count and compensatory and punitive damages under the common law tort count. The tort count is based on alleged acts which are identical to some of the acts set forth in the statutory restraint of trade count. If the plaintiffs succeed in convincing the jury of the defendants' liability under these counts, an award of both treble damages and punitive damages would clearly be duplicative. An award of treble damages for antitrust violations embodies both punitive and compensatory damages. See Superturf [SuperTurf], Inc. v. Monsanto Co., 660 F.2d 1275, 1283 (8th Cir. 1981); Clark Oil Co. v. Phillips Petroleum Co., 148 F.2d 580, 582 (8th Cir.), cert. denied, 326 U.S. 734, 66 S.Ct. 42, 90 L.Ed. 437 (1945). This Court has previously held that three separate awards for punitive damages based on the same conduct were inappropriate. Montgomery Ward Co. v. Cliser, 267 Md. 406, 424-425, 298 A.2d 16 (1972). Thus, the plaintiffs, if they succeed in proving their case against The Store, Ltd., and its officers, will have to choose between receiving treble damages for the antitrust violation or compensatory and punitive damages for the tort arising from some of the same acts."

See also Nichols v. Wilson, 296 Md. 154, 158-160, 460 A.2d 57, 60 (1983); General Motors Corp. v. Piskor, supra, 281 Md. at 629 n. 1, 381 A.2d at 17 n. 1.

(8)

The plaintiff's reasonable costs and expenses resulting from the defendant's malicious and tortious conduct, including the expenses of the litigation, which are not covered by the award of compensatory damages, are matters which appropriately can be considered in judicially reviewing an award of punitive damages. BMW of North America, Inc. v. Gore, supra, 701 So.2d at 514; Jonathan Woodner Co. v. Breeden, supra, 665 A.2d at 941 n. 19; Kunewa v. Joshua, 83 Haw. 65, 74-77, 924 P.2d 559, 568-571 (App. 1996), and cases there collected; Newton v. Hornblower, Inc., 224 Kan. 506, 526, 582 P.2d 1136, 1151 (1978); Restatement (Second) of Torts, supra, § 914, comment (a), second paragraph.

In St. Luke Church v. Smith, supra, 318 Md. at 352-354, 568 A.2d at 42-43, this Court held that evidence of the amount of the plaintiff's reasonable attorney's fees was admissible and could be considered by a jury in determining the amount of punitive damages. We pointed out that such expenses "guide the jury by giving them the 'aid of one fairly definite factor which they may take into account in fixing the amount' of punitive damages." 318 Md. at 353, 568 A.2d at 42. The Court explained (318 Md. at 353-354, 568 A.2d at 43):

"When a jury determines that punitive damages are appropriate and has considered reasonable attorney's fees, two seemingly disparate goals are satisfied. First, because the jury will be offered objective guidance in calculating the amount of its punitive award, punitive damages will be more accurately measured and the potential for abuse decreased. . . . Second, the plaintiff can be made truly whole in precisely those kinds of cases in which the defendant's wrongful conduct is found to be at its most flagrant, for only in such cases are punitive damages warranted. . . . Therefore, to aid the jury in calculating an amount of punitive damages that will deter a party from future wrongful conduct, evidence of reasonable attorney's fees may be considered by the jury whenever punitive damages are appropriate."

Similar reasoning is applicable to judicial review of a jury's award and to a judge's consideration of any other reasonable expenses which are not covered by the award of compensatory damages and which were incurred by the plaintiff as a result of the defendant's tortious and malicious conduct.

Like other factors which we have discussed, however, substantial expenses incurred by the plaintiff will not justify a punitive damages award which is disproportionate to the gravity of the defendant's tortious conduct or which is disproportionate to the defendant's ability to pay. See St. Luke Church v. Smith, supra, 318 Md. at 355-356, 568 A.2d at 44 (dissenting opinion); BMW of North America, Inc. v. Gore, supra, 701 So.2d at 514.

Moreover, we agree with the idea reflected in Judge Rodowsky's dissenting opinion in St. Luke Church v. Smith, supra, 318 Md. at 355, 568 A.2d at 44, joined by Chief Judge Murphy and Judge McAuliffe, that the matter of the plaintiff's uncompensated reasonable expenses should not be a factor simply to "enlarge" awards of punitive damages. In a case where the plaintiff has not incurred substantial uncompensated expenses as a result of the defendant's wrongful and malicious conduct, the expense factor will militate in favor of a smaller punitive award.

(9)

This Court, beginning with Schaefer v. Miller, 322 Md. 297, 311-332, 587 A.2d 491, 498-509 (1991) (opinion of Judges Eldridge, Cole and Chasanow), and Owens-Illinois v. Zenobia, supra, 325 Md. 420, 601 A.2d 633, and continuing through Scott v. Jenkins, supra, 345 Md. 21, 690 A.2d 1000, undertook an examination and revision of Maryland common law principles applicable to punitive damages. Prior to that time, in D.C. Transit System v. Brooks, 264 Md. 578, 588-590, 287 A.2d 251, 256-257 (1972), in upholding a $10,000 punitive damages award for false arrest when the compensatory damages award was $750, the Court rejected "authority from other jurisdictions relative to ratios that should exist between compensatory damage and exemplary damage awards." The Court took the position that there need be no relationship between punitive and compensatory damages awards.

Subsequently, however, in Owens-Illinois v. Zenobia, supra, 325 Md. at 472 n. 28, 601 A.2d at 658 n. 28, we indicated that whether "a punitive damages award [should] bear some relationship to the compensatory damages" was an open issue for "exploration . . . another day."

More recently, the United States Supreme Court has stated that "[t]he second and perhaps most commonly cited indicium of an unreasonable or excessive punitive damages award is its ratio to the actual harm inflicted on the plaintiff." BMW of North America, Inc. v. Gore, supra, 517 U.S. at 580,116 S.Ct. at 1601, 134 L.Ed.2d at 829. Equating "actual harm" with the compensatory damages award, the Supreme Court continued ( ibid.): "The principle that exemplary damages must bear a 'reasonable relationship' to compensatory damages has a long pedigree." See also, e.g., TXO Production Corp. v. Alliance Resources Corp., supra, 509 U.S. at 459-460, 113 S.Ct. at 2721, 125 L.Ed.2d at 380-381; Pacific Mutual Life Insurance Co. v. Haslip, supra, 499 U.S. at 21-23, 111 S.Ct. at 1045-1046, 113 L.Ed.2d at 22-23; Klein v. Grynberg, 44 F.3d 1497, 1505 (10th Cir.), cert. denied, 516 U.S. 810, 116 S.Ct. 58, 133 L.Ed.2d 22 (1995); King v. Armstrong World Industries, Inc., 906 F.2d 1022, 1030 (5th Cir. 1990), cert. denied, 500 U.S. 942, 111 S.Ct. 2236, 114 L.Ed.2d 478 (1991); BMW of North America, Inc. v. Gore, supra, 701 So.2d at 513; Cameron v. Beard, 864 P.2d 538, 551 (Alaska 1993); Wilson v. IBP, Inc., 558 N.W.2d 132, 147 (Iowa 1996), cert. denied, ___ U.S. ___, 118 S.Ct. 52, 139 L.Ed.2d 17 (1997); Call v. Heard, supra, 925 S.W.2d at 849; Maurer v. Clausen Distributing Co., 275 Mont. 229, 234, 912 P.2d 195, 198 (1996); Schaffer v. Edward D. Jones Co., 552 N.W.2d 801, 810-811 (S.D. 1996); Crookston v. Fire Ins. Exchange, 817 P.2d 789, 808, 811 (Utah 1991); Vandevender v. Sheetz, 200 W. Va. 591, 598-599, 490 S.E.2d 678, 685-686 (1997), cert. denied, ___ U.S. ___, 118 S.Ct. 883, 139 L.Ed.2d 871 (1998); Management Computer Services, Inc. v. Hawkins, Ash, Baptie Co., 206 Wis.2d 158, 194, 557 N.W.2d 67, 82 (1996).

Whether a punitive damages award bears a reasonable relationship to the compensatory damages awarded in the case, is today generally accepted as a factor to be considered in judicial review for excessiveness of a jury's punitive damages award. We agree that this should be a consideration when a court reviews an award of punitive damages for excessiveness.

Nevertheless, there are situations in which little or no consideration should be given to the relationship which punitive damages awards bear to compensatory damages awards. For example, where the defendant engages in extremely heinous conduct having great potential for harm, but because of fortuitous circumstances the plaintiff does not suffer a great deal of compensatory harm, the amount of the compensatory damages award furnishes a poor guide to the amount of an appropriate punitive damages award. In this circumstance, the relationship of the punitive damages award to the potential harm that might have resulted is more important than the relationship to the actual compensatory award. See, e.g., BMW of North America, Inc. v. Gore, supra, 517 U.S. at 582, 116 S.Ct. at 1602, 134 L.Ed.2d at 831 ("low awards of compensatory damages may properly support a higher ratio than high compensatory awards, if, for example, a particularly egregious act has resulted in only a small amount of economic damages"); TXO Production Corp. v. Alliance Resources Corp., supra, 509 U.S. at 460, 113 S.Ct. at 2721-2722, 125 L.Ed.2d at 380-381 ("both State Supreme Courts and this Court have eschewed an approach that concentrates entirely on the relationship between actual and punitive damages. It is appropriate to consider the magnitude of the potential harm that the defendant's conduct would have caused to its intended victim if the wrongful plan had succeeded, as well as the possible harm to other victims that might have resulted if similar future behavior were not deterred").

C.

As indicated before, not all of the above-summarized principles or factors are pertinent in every case involving court review of punitive damages awards. Furthermore, the above list is not intended to be exclusive or all-encompassing. Other principles may appropriately be applicable to judicial review of punitive damages awards under particular circumstances.

In addition, simply because a principle should be considered by the court in reviewing a punitive damages award for excessiveness does not mean that the same principle should give rise to an appropriate issue at the trial before the jury or an appropriate issue for a jury instruction. For example, the matters discussed in parts B(5) or B(6) above are not, in our view, appropriate issues for the trial before the jury; they would have the potential of distracting the jury over collateral issues.

D.

In light of the principles discussed above, we fully agree with the trial court that the $9,000,000 award of punitive damages was excessive. Caldor's conduct towards the plaintiff in this case was highly reprehensible and fully warranted punitive damages. Viewing the evidence most favorably for the plaintiff, as the juries did, Caldor's officials, without any basis, accused a young man of theft, falsely imprisoned him for several hours, lied about the evidence which they allegedly possessed, would not allow the plaintiff to call his parents, coerced him to sign a false confession, falsely arrested him on the following day, and caused his juvenile prosecution without any evidence against him. Moreover, the juries likely and reasonably concluded that the Caldor officials involved in this matter were motivated by racial hatred.

As heinous as it was, however, Caldor's malicious and wrongful conduct was not life threatening or the type of conduct which would likely lead to permanent physical injuries. There was no evidence in the record that the plaintiff has suffered any serious lasting effects from the events. There was also no evidence that Caldor personnel had previously or have subsequently engaged in similar wrongful conduct.

The $9,000,000 punitive damages award is nine times higher than the greatest criminal fine authorized by the Maryland Legislature. It is about thirteen times higher than the largest punitive damages award ever upheld by this Court. It is one hundred and fifty times higher than the compensatory damages awarded in the case. Finally, although Caldor was liable for three separate torts, there was only one course of conduct. Montgomery Ward Co. v. Cliser, supra.

The trial court did not err in finding that the $9,000,000 award was excessive or in substantially reducing the award. The court's only error, necessitating another trial court review, was the court's reliance on the principle of North Carolina v. Pearce, supra.

IV.

The plaintiff Bowden contends that, under Article 23 of the Maryland Declaration of Rights, a court cannot reduce, on the ground of excessiveness, a jury's award of punitive damages without giving the plaintiff the option of a new jury trial on punitive damages. According to Bowden, even if the $9,000,000 punitive damages award were excessive, the circuit court erred in reducing the award without granting him the option of a new jury trial. Bowden insists that the circuit court's ruling violated his "right of trial by jury of all issues of fact in civil proceedings" guaranteed by Article 23 of the Declaration of Rights.

This Court has never discussed or decided this precise question with regard to an award of punitive damages. Similarly, the United States Supreme Court has not ruled on the issue under the Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution. Cases in the lower federal courts under the Seventh Amendment, and in other state courts under state constitutional provisions, appear to be divided on the issue.

Even though the Seventh Amendment is not applicable to state Court proceedings, some of the Supreme Court's opinions under that Amendment are instructive. The Seventh Amendment provides as follows:

"In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law."

The Supreme Court has taken the position that, when a court reduces as excessive a jury's award of compensatory damages, the Seventh Amendment ordinarily requires that the plaintiff be given the option of a new trial. Gasperini v. Center for Humanities, Inc., 518 U.S. 415, 431-433, 116 S.Ct. 2211, 2222, 135 L.Ed.2d 659, 677-678 (1996); Dimick v. Schiedt, 293 U.S. 474, 480-487, 55 S.Ct. 296, 298-301, 79 L.Ed. 603, 608-611 (1935); Kennon v. Gilmer, 131 U.S. 22, 28-30, 9 S.Ct. 696, 698-699, 33 L.Ed. 110, 113-114 (1889).

Interestingly, the Supreme Court's position is not based upon the first clause of the Seventh Amendment which states that "the right of trial by jury shall be preserved," but is grounded upon the second clause which states that "no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court. . . ." Gasperini v. Center For Humanities, Inc., supra, 518 U.S. at 432, 116 S.Ct. at 2222, 135 L.Ed.2d at 677. The second paragraph of Article 23 of the Maryland Declaration of Rights, stating that the "right of trial by Jury of all issues of fact in civil proceedings . . . shall be inviolably preserved," is similar to the first clause of the Seventh Amendment. The Maryland Constitution contains no provision similar to the second clause of the Seventh Amendment, which the Supreme Court has designated the "'re-examination' clause," Gasperini, 518 U.S. at 432-433, 116 S.Ct. at 2222, 135 L.Ed.2d at 677.

Although the Supreme Court has never decided whether, under the Seventh Amendment, a court's reduction of a punitive damages award for excessiveness must be accompanied by a new trial option, the Court has held, in an action for statutory civil monetary penalties where the Seventh Amendment grants the right of jury trial on the issue of liability, that the Amendment does not require that the jury also determine the amount of the penalties. Tull v. United States, 481 U.S. 412, 107 S.Ct. 1831, 95 L.Ed.2d 365 (1987).

In Gasperini v. Center For Humanities, Inc., supra, a diversity action involving a claim for compensatory damages under New York law, the Supreme Court held inter alia that the Seventh Amendment did not preclude a federal appellate court's review, under an abuse of discretion standard, of a federal trial court's refusal to set aside the jury's award as excessive. In dissenting, Justice Scalia, joined by two other justices, drew a sharp distinction between compensatory and punitive damages ( Gasperini, 518 U.S. at 459, 116 S.Ct. at 2235, 135 L.Ed.2d at 693):

"Nor can any weight be assigned to our statement in Browning-Ferris Industries of Vt., Inc. v. Kelco Disposal, Inc., 492 U.S. 257, 279, 109 S.Ct. 2909, 2922, 106 L.Ed.2d 219 (1989), seemingly approving appellate abuse-of-discretion review of denials of new trials where punitive damages are claimed to be excessive. Browning-Ferris, like Grunenthal and Neese, explicitly avoided the question that is before us today, see 492 U.S., at 279, n. 25, 109 S.Ct., at 2922, n. 25. Even more significantly, Browning-Ferris involved review of a jury's punitive damages award. Unlike the measure of actual damages suffered, which presents a question of historical or predictive fact, see, e.g., [St. Louis, I M S R Co. v.] Craft, 237 U.S. [648] 661, 35 S.Ct. [704] 707 [ 59 L.Ed. 1160 (1915)], the level of punitive damages is not really a 'fact' 'tried' by the jury. In none of our cases holding that the Reexamination Clause prevents federal appellate review of claims of excessive damages does it appear that the damages had a truly 'punitive' component."

Turning to this Court's decisions under the Maryland Constitution, as previously pointed out, we have never discussed or decided whether a court's reduction for excessiveness of a punitive damages award must, under Article 23 of the Declaration of Rights, be accompanied by a new trial option. In fact, this Court has never decided the comparable issue with regard to compensatory damages. We have observed that, under normal Maryland practice, a court's reduction of a compensatory damages award as excessive is ordinarily accompanied by a new trial option, and that this practice does not violate Article 23. See, e.g., Conklin v. Schillinger, 255 Md. 50, 64-66, 257 A.2d 187, 194 (1969); Safeway Trails, Inc. v. Smith, 222 Md. 206, 223, 159 A.2d 823, 833 (1960); Turner v. Wash. Sanitary Comm., 221 Md. 494, 501-503, 158 A.2d 125, 129-130 (1960). See also Banegura v. Taylor, 312 Md. 609, 624-625, 541 A.2d 969, 976-977 (1988). Nonetheless, we have never held that the new trial option is required, either with respect to punitive or compensatory damages.

Although not discussing the constitutional question, this Court has ordered the reduction of punitive damages awards, on the ground of excessiveness, without granting a new trial option. Montgomery Ward Co. v. Cliser, supra, 267 Md. at 425, 298 A.2d at 27. See also Heinze v. Murphy, supra, 180 Md. at 434, 24 A.2d at 923. Moreover, we have held that when the law imposes a limitation or cap upon damages, Article 23 of the Declaration of Rights does not preclude a court from reducing the jury's award of damages to such limitation or cap. Murphy v. Edmonds, 325 Md. 342, 370-375, 601 A.2d 102, 116 (1992).

Assuming arguendo that, under Article 23 of the Declaration of Rights, a court ordinarily may not reduce, on the ground on the ground of excessiveness, a jury's compensatory damages award without giving the plaintiff the option of a new trial, it would not follow that the same limitation is applicable to a jury's punitive damages award. As pointed out by Justice Scalia, Gasperini v. Center for Humanities, Inc., supra, 518 U.S. at 458-460, 116 S.Ct. at 2235, 135 L.Ed.2d at 693 (Scalia, J., dissenting), the measure of compensatory damages suffered is essentially "a question of historical or predictive fact," whereas "the level of punitive damages is not. . . ." The factors limiting the size of punitive damages awards, discussed in part III of this opinion, are principles of law. The limits imposed upon awards of punitive damages, whether by Maryland common law or by federal constitutional law, are legal limits similar to statutory limitations or caps upon damages. See Murphy v. Edmonds, supra, 325 Md. at 371, 601 A.2d at 116, where this Court, in upholding a legal limitation upon noneconomic damages, stated (emphasis added):

"As the wording of Article 23 itself indicates, the jury trial right in civil cases relates to 'issues of fact' in legal actions. It does not extend to issues of law, equitable issues, or matters which historically were resolved by the judge rather than the jury."

It is true that the limits imposed upon punitive damages involve the weighing of several legal principles, and thus are not as fixed as a statutory cap on a particular type of damages. Nevertheless the court, in applying legal principles to reduce a jury's punitive damages award, is performing a legal function and not acting as a second trier of fact. Although the function also involves the evidence in the case, it is similar to the legal function of granting a judgment notwithstanding a verdict.

Consequently, we hold that Article 23 of the Declaration of Rights does not require a court, when it reduces a punitive damages award for excessiveness, to give the plaintiff the option of a new trial. Although the court, in its discretion, may grant a new trial option, it is not required to do so.

JUDGMENT OF THE COURT OF SPECIAL APPEALS VACATED, AND CASE REMANDED TO THE COURT OF SPECIAL APPEALS WITH DIRECTIONS TO VACATE THE PUNITIVE DAMAGES JUDGMENT OF THE CIRCUIT COURT FOR BALTIMORE CITY AND TO REMAND THE CASE TO THAT COURT FOR FURTHER PROCEEDINGS NOT INCONSISTENT WITH THIS OPINION. COSTS IN THIS COURT AND IN THE COURT OF SPECIAL APPEALS TO BE PAID BY RESPONDENT CALDOR, INC.

BELL, C.J., dissents and concurs.